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最近查询域名From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with  or .
This article contains . Without proper , you may see unjoined letters running left to right or other symbols instead of .
The Uyghur or Uighur () language (Uyghur: ?????? ???? Uyghur tili), formerly known as Eastern , is a
with 8 to 11 million speakers, spoken primarily by the
of . Significant communities of Uyghur-speakers are located in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and various other countries have Uyghur-speaking expatriate communities. Uyghur is an
of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, and is widely used in both social and official spheres, as well as in print, radio, and television, and is used as a
by other .[]
Uyghur belongs to the
branch of the
family, which also includes languages such as . Like many other Turkic languages, Uyghur displays
and , lacks
or , and is a
word order. More distinctly Uyghur processes include, especially in northern dialects,
and . In addition to influence of other Turkic languages, Uyghur has historically been influenced strongly by
and , and more recently by
The modified Arabic-derived writing system is the most common and the only standard in China, although other writing systems are used for auxiliary and historical purposes. Unlike most Arabic-derived scripts, the Uyghur Arabic alphabet has mandatory marking of all vowels due to modifications to the original Perso-Arabic script made in the 20th century. Two Latin and one Cyrillic alphabet are also used, though to a much lesser extent. The Arabic and Latin alphabets both have 32 characters.
are the direct ancestor of the , including Uyghur and the .
Kagan Arik wrote that Modern Uyghur is not descended from Old Uyghur, rather, it is a descendant of the
spoken by the . According to ,
is considered to be the true descendant of Old Uyghur, and is also called "Neo-Uyghur". Modern Uyghur is not a descendant of Old Uyghur, but is descended from the Xākānī language described by
in . According to Frederik Coene, Modern Uyghur and Western Yugur belong to entirely different branches of the Turkic language family, respectively the
and the . The , although in geographic proximity, is more closely related to the
in Siberia. Robert Dankoff wrote that the Turkic language spoken in Kashgar and used in Kara Khanid works was Karluk, not (Old) Uyghur.
wrote, "In the Turkish of Káshghar and Yarkand (which some European linguists have called U?ghur,§ a name unknown to the inhabitants of those towns, who know their tongue simply as Túrki),.....§ This would seem in many case to be a misnomer as applied to the modem language of Kashghar".
wrote, "In these cases it would be particularly inappropriate to normalize to the East Turkish literary language, because by so doing one would obliterate traces of national elements which have no immediate connection with the Kaschgar Turks, but on the contrary are possibly derived from the ancient Uigurs".
Probably around 1077, a scholar of the Turkic languages,
in modern-day , published a Turkic language dictionary and description of the geographic distribution of many Turkic languages,
(English: Compendium of the Turkic Dialects; Uyghur: ????? ?????? ?????? Türki Tillar Diwani). The book, described by scholars as an "extraordinary work," documents the rich literary tradition of T it contains folk tales (including descriptions of the functions of ) and didactic poetry (propounding "moral standards and good behaviour"), besides poems and poetry cycles on topics such as hunting and love, and numerous other language materials. Other Kara-Khanid writers wrote works in the Turki Karluk Khaqani language.
wrote the . Ahmad bin Mahmud Yukenaki (Ahmed bin Mahmud Yükneki) (Ahmet ibn Mahmut Yükneki) (Yazan Edib Ahmed b. Mahmud Yükneki) () wrote the
(??? ???????) (Hibet-ül hakayik) (Hibet ül-hakay?k) (Hibbetü'l-Hakaik) (Atebetü'l-hakayik) ().
, through the influence of - after the 13th century, developed into the , a
used all across
until the early 20th century. After Chaghatai fell into , the
of Uyghur and
were developed from dialects in the Chagatai-speaking region, showing abundant Chaghatai influence. Uyghur language today shows considerable
influence as a result from Chagatai, including numerous Persian .
Modern Uyghur religious literature includes the , biographies of Islamic religious figures and saints. The Ta?kirah is a genre of literature written about Sufi Muslim saints in . Written sometime in the period between 1700 and 1849, the Eastern Turkic language (modern Uyghur) Ta?kirah of the Four Sacrificed Imams provides an account of the Muslim Karakhanid war against the Khotanese Buddhists, containing a story about Imams, from Mada'in city (possibly in modern-day Iraq) came 4 Imams who travelled to help the Islamic conquest of Khotan, Yarkand, and Kashgar by Yusuf Qadir Khan, the Qarakhanid leader. The shrines of Sufi Saints are revered in
as one of Islam's essential components and the tazkirah literature reinforced the sacredness of the shrines. Anyone who does not believe in the stories of the saints is guaranteed hellfire by the tazkirahs. It is written, "And those who doubt Their Holinesses the Imams will leave this world without faith, and on Judgement Day their faces will be black...." in the Tazkirah of the Four Sacrificed Imams. Shaw translated extracts from the Tazkiratu'l-Bughra on the Muslim Turki war against the "infidel" Khotan. The Turki-language Tadhkirah i Khwajagan was written by M. Sadiq Kashghari. Historical works like the Tārīkh-i amniyya and Tārīkh-i ?amīdi were written by .
commissioned dictionaries on the major languages of China which included Chagatai Turki, such as the .
Shaw and Christian missionaries such as , , , , , , , , , , , , , the convert to Christianity , Harold Whitaker, and Turkologist
studied the Uyghur language and wrote works on it, calling it "Eastern Turki". Shaw wrote in his book that it was Europeans at his time who called the language "Uighur" while the native inhabitants of Yarkand and Kashgar did not call it by that name and but called it "Turki", and Shaw wrote that the name "Uighur" was a misnomer when referring to Kashgar's language. A Turkish convert to Christianity,
went to China to spread Christianity to the Uyghurs. , , and
are other Uyghurs who converted to Christianity.
The Bible was translated into the Kashgari dialect of Turki (Uyghur).
The historical term "Uyghur" was appropriated for the language that had been known as Eastern Turki by government officials in the Soviet Union in 1922 and in Xinjiang in 1934.
was behind the idea of renaming Turki to Uyghurs. The use of the term Uyghur has lead to anachronisms when describing the history of the people. In one of his books the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward. The name Khāqāniyya was given to the
who inhabited Kāshghar and Bālāsāghūn, the inhabitants were not Uighur, but their language has been retroactively labelled as Uighur by scholars. The Qarakhanids called their own language the "Turk" or "Kashgar" language, and did not use Uighur to describe their own language, Uighur was used to describe the language of non-Muslims but Chinese scholars have anachronistically called a Qarakhanid work written by Kashgari as "Uighur".
Main article:
The Uyghur language belongs to the
(or Karluk or Qarluq) branch of the . It is closely related to , , , the
(the East Karluk languages), and more distantly to
(which is West Karluk).
Early linguistic scholarly studies of Uyghur include 's 1812 Dissertation on language and script of the Uighurs (Abhandlung über die Sprache und Schrift der Uiguren) which was disputed by . In this period, Klaproth correctly asserted that Uyghur was a Turkic language, while Schmidt believed that Uyghur should be classified with .
Main article:
It is widely accepted that Uyghur has three main dialects, all based on their geographical distribution. Each of these main dialects have a number of sub-dialects which all are
to some extent.
Central: Spoken in an area stretching from
towards south to
Southern: Spoken in an area stretching from
towards east to
Eastern: Spoken in an area stretching from
towards north to  ()
The Central dialects are spoken by 90% of the Uyghur-speaking population, while the two other branches of dialects only are spoken by a relatively small minority.
is common in the northern parts of where Uyghur is spoken, but not in the south.
Uyghur is spoken by about 8-11 million people in total. In addition to being spoken primarily in the
of , mainly by the , Uyghur was also spoken by some 300,000 people in
in 1993, some 90,000 in
and 1,000 in , both in 1982. Smaller communities also exist in , , , , , , , , , , , ,
are one of the 56 , and Uyghur is an official language of , along with . As a result, Uyghur can be heard in most social domains in Xinjiang, and also in schools, government and courts. Of the other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang, those populous enough to have their own , such as the
and the , have access to schools and government services in their native language. Smaller minorities, however, do not have a choice and must attend Uyghur-medium schools. These include the , , , and .
are available in U five
serve as the Uyghur . Outside of China,
provide news in Uyghur.
Main article:
The vowels of the Uyghur language are, in their alphabetical order (in Uyghur Latin script), ?a?, ?e?, ???, ?i?, ?o?, ???, ?u?, ?ü?. There are no diphthongs in Uyghur and when two vowels come together, which occurs in some loanwords, each vowel retains its individual sound. And disregarding vowel length distinction in current Uyghur orthographies.
The Uyghur vowel system is characterised by the oppositions front vs. back, high vs. low and unrounded vs. rounded.
The Uyghur vowel system may be subcategorized on the basis of height, backness and roundness. It has been argued, within a lexical phonology framework, that /e/ has a back counterpart /?/. And modern Uyghur lacks a clear differentiation i:?
Rounded / Lewleshken (Yumulaq)
Unrounded / Lewleshmigen (Tüz)
Rounded / Lewleshken (Yumulaq)
Uyghur vowels are by default , but some phonologists[] have argued that long vowels also exist because of historical vowel
(above) and through loanwords. Underlyingly long vowels would resist vowel reduction and , introduce non-final stress, and be analyzed as |Vj| or |Vr| before a few suffixes. However, the conditions in which they are actually pronounced as distinct from their short counterparts have not been fully researched.
The high vowels undergo some tensing when they occur adjacent to alveolars (s, z, r, l), palatals (j), dentals (t?, d?, n?), and post-alveolar affricates (t??, d??), e.g. chiraq [??'iraq] ‘lamp’, jenubiy [??n?'bi:] ‘southern’, yüz [jyz] ‘ hundred’, suda [su:'da] ‘in/at (the) water’.
Both [?] and [?] undergo apicalisation after alveodental continuants in unstressed syllables, e.g. siler [s??lae:(r)] ‘you (plural)’, ziyan [z??'jɑ:n] ‘harm’. They are medialised after /χ/ or before /l/, e.g. til [t??l] ‘tongue’, xizmet [χ?z'm?t] ‘service’. After velars, uvulars and /f/ they are realised as [e], e.g. giram [ɡe'r?m] ‘gramme’, xelqi [χ?l'q?e] ‘his [etc.] nation’, Finn [fen] ‘Finn’. Between two syllables that contain a rounded back vowel each, they are realised as back, e.g. qolimu [q??'l?m?] ‘also his [etc.] arm’.
Any vowel undergoes laxing and backing when it occurs in uvular(/q/, /?/, /χ/) and laryngeal(Glottal)(/?/, /?/) environments, e.g. qiz [q??z] ‘girl’, q?tiq [q??'t?q] ‘yogurt’, qeghez [q?ae'?aez] ‘paper’, qum [q??m] ‘sand’, qolay [q??'l??] ‘convenient’, qan [q?ɑn] ‘blood’, ?ghiz [?e'?ez] ‘mouth’, hisab [??'s?p] ‘number’, h?s [??s] ‘hunch’, hemrah [?aem'r?h] ‘partner’, h?l [?oe?] ‘wet’, hujum [?u'??m] ‘assault’, halqa [?ɑl'q?ɑ] ‘ring’.
Lowering tends to apply to the non-high vowels when a syllable-final liquid assimilates to them, e.g. k?r [c??:] ‘look!’, boldi [b?l'd?] ‘he [etc.] became’, ders [dae:s] ‘lesson’, tar [t?ɑ:(r)] ‘narrow’.
Official Uyghur orthographies do not mark vowel length, and also do not distinguish between /?/ (e.g., ????? /b?l?m/ 'knowledge') and back // (e.g., ????? /t?l?m/ 'my language'); these two sounds are in , but phonological analyses claim that they play a role in vowel harmony and are separate phonemes. /e/ only occurs in words of non-Turkic origin and as the result of vowel raising.
Uyghur has systematic
(or vowel raising) as well as vowel harmony. Words usually agree in vowel backness, but compounds, loans, and some other exceptions often break vowel harmony. Suffixes surface with the rightmost [back] value in the stem, and /e, ?/ are transparent (as they don't contrast for backness). Uyghur also has rounding harmony.
Uyghur voiceless stops are aspirated word-initially and intervocalically. The pairs /p, b/, /t, d/, /k, ɡ/, and /q, ?/ alternate, with the voiced member devoicing in syllable-final position, except in word-initial syllables. This devoicing process is usually reflected in the official orthography, but an exception has been recently made for certain Perso-Arabic loans. Voiceless phonemes do not become voiced in standard Uyghur.
Suffixes display a slightly different type of consonant alternation. The phonemes /ɡ/ and /?/ anywhere in a suffix alternate as governed by , where /ɡ/ occurs with front vowels and /?/ with back ones. Devoicing of a suffix-initial consonant can occur only in the cases of /d/ → [t], /ɡ/ → [k], and /?/ → [q], when the preceding consonant is voiceless. Lastly, the rule that /g/ must occur with front vowels and /?/ with back vowels can be broken when either [k] or [q] in suffix-initial position becomes assimilated by the other due to the preceding consonant being such.
Loan phonemes have influenced Uyghur to various degrees. /d??/ and /χ/ were borrowed from Arabic and have been nativized, while /?/ from Persian less so. /f/ only exists in very recent Russian and Chinese loans, since Perso-Arabic (and older Russian and Chinese) /f/ became Uyghur /p/. Perso-Arabic loans have also made the contrast between /k, ɡ/ and /q, ?/ phonemic, as they occur as allophones in native words, the former set near front vowels and the latter near a back vowels. Some speakers of Uyghur distinguish /v/ from /w/ in Russian loans, but this is not represented in most orthographies. Other phonemes occur natively only in limited contexts, i.e. /h/ only in few interjections, /d/, /ɡ/, and /?/ rarely initially, and /z/ only morpheme-final. Therefore, the pairs */t??, d??/, */?, ?/, and */s, z/ do not alternate.
The primary
of Uyghur is CV(C)(C). Uyghur syllable structure is usually CV or CVC, but CVCC can also occur in some words. When syllable-coda clusters occur, CC tends to become CVC in some speakers especially if the first consonant is not a . In Uyghur, any consonant phoneme can occur as the syllable
or , except for /?/ which only occurs in the onset and /?/, which never occurs word-initially. In general, Uyghur
tends to simplify
clusters by means of
Main article:
A signboard in front of the Military Museum of Xinjiang written in Uyghur (using Arabic script) and
A sign in , Xinjiang, written in Uyghur (using Arabic script) and Chinese (both
oasis city in the
of the People's Republic of China. Address written in Uyghur Language/
The Karluk language started to be written with the Perso-Arabic script (Kona Y?ziq) in the 10th century upon the conversion of the Kara-Khanids to Islam. This Perso-Arabic script (Kona Y?ziq) was reformed in the 20th century with modifications to represent all Modern Uyghur sounds including short vowels and eliminate Arabic letters representing sounds not found in Modern Uyghur. A Unlike many other modern , Uyghur is primarily written using an , (with 4 alphabets like che-Pe-Zhe and Ga) although a
also are in use to a much lesser extent. Unusually for an alphabet based on the , full transcription of vowels is indicated. (Among the Arabic family of alphabets, only a few, such as , distinguish all vowels.)
The four alphabets in use today can be seen below.
In the table below the alphabets are shown side-by-side for comparison, together with a
Main article:
Uyghur is an
word order.
are inflected for
and , but not
like in many other languages. There are two numbers: and six different cases: , , , ,
are conjugated for : : : ; and : e.g. ability. Verbs may be negated as well.
of the Uyghur language is of , but due to different kinds of
through the history of the language, it has adopted many . ,
which have had a strong influence on Uyghur. Many words of
origin have come into the language through
and , which again have come through Uzbek, and to a greater extent, Chagatai. Many words of Arabic origin have also entered the language directly through
after the introduction of the
around the 10th century.
elsewhere had the greatest influence on Uyghur. Loanwords from these languages are all quite recent, although older borrowings exist as well, such as borrowings from , a
language spoken by the
of . A number of loanwords of
origin have also reached Uyghur through Russian.
Below are some examples of loanwords which have entered the Uyghur language.
Source word
Source (in )
Uyghur word
Uyghur (in )
epsus ??????
/'sa:?at/ ()
saet ?????
велосипед
[v??l?s??'p??t]
w?lsipit ????????
/welsipit/
доктор
doxtur ??????
doctor (medical)
поезд
['po.j?st]
poyiz ?????
область
['obl?s?t?]
oblast ???????
телевизор
[t??l??'v?iz?r]
t?l?wizor ?????????
/televizor/
television set
凉粉 liángfěn
[li?ɑ???f?n??]
lempung ??????
agar-agar jelly
豆腐 dòufu
[tou???fu?]
bean curd/tofu
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