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托福阅读TPO12(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Which Hand Did They Use?
时间: 18:01:00 来源:可可英语 编辑:alice
托福阅读译文我们都知道，现在的人们更多是使用右手而非左手。能不能在史前查找出这一相似的状况呢？有太多的来自澳大利亚地区的石屋中模板和字迹以及冰河期法国西班牙以及塔斯马尼亚地区的岩洞上搜集到的证据证明右手较之于左手的优势。当一个左手被用于塑模时暗示了制作他的工匠惯于使用右手,反之亦然。即使是制作一幅画作需要用嘴喷涂，也可以想象惯用手是如何在这一过程中起到协助作用的。另一个假设是被用于塑模的手手掌向下-一只左手塑模朝上也许让它看起来像一只右手。在法国Gargas岩洞中的158个模板中，有136个鉴定确认为左手，只有22个是右手；右手习惯毫无疑问是据绝对主导地位的。岩洞艺术的其他形式也为这一现象提供了依据。例如大多数的雕版都是左起的光照最好，因为是配合惯用右手的工匠的工作，他们经常喜欢让光线从左边照过来以便他们手的影子不会投射在雕板工具或是刷子的末端。很多冰河时期的雕塑都被雕刻为拿着一些物品的摸样，尽管不是绝对的，但是起码大多数都是放在右手上。其他方法也能找出使用右手习惯的线索。右撇子的右侧身体会趋于更长，更壮且更多肌肉的骨骼,Marcellin Boule早在1911提到的一块名为La Chapelle-aux-Saints的尼安德特人的右上臂骨架骨骼要明显强壮于左侧。对其他尼安德特人的骨架的调查也得到了类似的结果。例如la Ferrassie 1和尼安德特人本身。断裂痕与割伤痕也是论据的另一来源。右撇子勇士一般都是左侧容易受伤。在内盖夫的戈壁中被埋了2 000多年的一个40～50岁之间的Nabatean勇士的骨架，在他的头部、左臂和肋骨上有多处已愈合的伤痕。工具的本身也会反映这一现象。新石器时代的紫杉木的长柄勺从史前3000年一直完好的保存到现在；它左侧的磨痕证明了它们的主人惯用右手。在法国的拉斯科斯岩洞艺术找到的冰川时代末期的绳子是由向右旋转的纤维捆成的，当然也就证实了出自右撇子之手。偶尔也能确定石器是左手使用还是右手使用，甚至可以查出这些特征是在多久前的过去被留下的。在石器制造试验中，Nick toth,一个右撇子用左手拿着一个石胚（就是一块是要成为工具的石头）同时用右手抡锤。由于工具的作用，胚子顺时针的旋转的同时，小碎片一点点的去掉，在一侧留下月牙状的表层（石头胚子的表面）。Toth’s的敲打产生的碎痕56%留在了右侧的表面， 44%留在了左侧朝向的碎痕。一个左撇子工匠则会生产出相反的花纹，Toth将这种标准对照到数个在Kombi Fora（距今一百五十万年前）发现的类似卵石工具上，他在7个地点找到的57%的碎痕是右侧朝向，而百43%是左侧朝向，就和今天我们所生产的花纹一样。大约90%的现代人是右撇子；我们都是只是优先使用一只手的哺乳动物。大脑负责良好的控制行动的区域位于脑部的左半球，这也证明的人类大脑的机构和功能上的不对称性在两百万年前就已经定型了。在距今7年的尼安德特人中，MarcellinBoule发现La Chapelle-aux-Saints（某人种吧）个体的大脑左半球稍微比右边大一点，与之类似的也被发现在尼安德特人、直布罗陀人和拉昆尼亚人种的脑型中。
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adj. 许多，多种多样的n. 倍数，并联
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adj. 新石器时代的
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n. 创始人adj. 新加入的v
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PO2-1-1 原文：The Origins Of Cetaceans
It should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke1 and blowhole2 cannot disguise their affinities with land dwelling mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. Extinct but already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. How was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans.
Very exciting discoveries have finally allowed scientists to reconstruct the most likely origins of cetaceans. In 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern Pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale. The fossil was officially named Pakicetus in honor of the country where the discovery was made. Pakicetus was found embedded in rocks formed from river deposits that were 52 million years old. The river that formed these deposits was actually not far from an ancient ocean known as the Tethys Sea.
The fossil consists of a complete skull of an archaeocyte, an extinct group of ancestors of modern cetaceans. Although limited to a skull, the Pakicetus fossil provides precious details on the origins of cetaceans. The skull is cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space that is filled with fat or oil and used for receiving underwater sound in modern whales. Pakicetus probably detected sound through the ear opening as in land mammals. The skull also lacks a blowhole, another cetacean adaptation for diving. Other features, however, show experts that Pakicetus is a transitional form between a group of extinct flesh-eating mammals, the mesonychids, and cetaceans. It has been suggested that Pakicetus fed on fish in shallow water and was not yet adapted for life in the open ocean. It probably bred and gave birth on land.
Another major discovery was made in Egypt in 1989. Several skeletons of another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in sediments left by the Tethys Sea and now exposed in the Sahara desert. This whale lived around 40 million years ago, 12 million years after Pakicetus. Many incomplete skeletons were found but they included, for the first time in an archaeocyte, a complete hind leg that features a foot with three tiny toes. Such legs would have been far too small to have supported the 50-foot-long Basilosaurus on land. Basilosaurus was undoubtedly a fully marine whale with possibly nonfunctional, or vestigial, hind legs...
1. In paragraph 1, what does the author say about the presence of a blowhole in cetaceans?
It clearly indicates that cetaceans are mammals.
It cannot conceal the fact that cetaceans are mammals.
It is the main difference between cetaceans and land-dwelling mammals.
It cannot yield clues about the origins of cetaceans.
2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about early sea otters?
It is not difficult to imagine what they looked like
There were great numbers of them.
They lived in the sea only.
They did not leave many fossil remains.
参考答案
13. 1 2 5
答案解析：
第一题，B，细节题。在第一段，关于鲸类动物的喷水孔的出现，作者说了什么?细节题，通过blowhole定位到第三句，这里说喷水孔的存在不能掩饰它们与陆生哺乳动物的affinities密切联系，到选项中找一下，只有B说它不能掩饰鲸类是哺乳动物的事实，conceal对应disguise，本题选B。A它清楚的表明鲸类是哺乳动物，clearly indicates和不能掩饰是不同的概念;C它是鲸类与陆生哺乳动物的主要不同，blowhole只是一个小小的区别，不是D 它不能提示鲸类起源，与定位句无关。
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托福阅读TPO难句翻译解析：婴儿期失忆Infantile
编辑：乐闻携尔 来源： 文勇微信空中课堂
发布时间：
文章摘要：
课堂内容1：难句翻译 Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers. TPO-6(): Infantile Amnesia 参考
&&& 课堂内容1：难句翻译
&&& Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& &&TPO-6(): Infantile Amnesia
&&& 参考翻译:
&&& 生理上的不成熟可能是婴幼儿无法形成长久记忆的原因之一。即便他们（婴幼儿）认真听那些可以促使学龄前儿童形成长久记忆的故事（也无法形成长久的记忆）。
&&& 课堂内容2：与本次句子翻译相关的阅读题目
&&& Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
&&& Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers.
&&& A. Incomplete physiological development may partly explain why hearing stories does not improve long-term memory in infants and toddlers.
&&& B. One reason why preschoolers fail to comprehend the stories they hear is that they are physiologically immature.
&&& C. Given the chance to hear stories, infants and toddlers may form enduring memories despite physiological immaturity.
&&& D. Physiologically mature children seem to have no difficulty remembering stories they heard as preschoolers.
&&& 答案为：A
&&& 知识点小结:
&&& 1. 这句话也被出成了句子简化题，大家不妨做一做（下一个版块就是相关的阅读题目）。若想选出正确答案，关键是要理清句子内部的逻辑关系。
&&& 2. 从&why&这个词语我们可以判断出前半句的逻辑关系是因果关系，后者&infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories&的原因就是前面的&Physiological immaturity&。
&&& 3. &why&在前半句中是由连接代词（或副词）引导的宾语从句，这种用法很常见，例如：
&&& a. She inquired why he had not thought of that before.
&&& 她询问为什么他以前没有想到这一点。
&&& b. She was curious to know where we had been.
&&& 她很好奇我们去了哪里。
&&& 关于&why&引导的句子，更常见的用法是&the reason why&。例如：
&&& This is the reason why he is always late for school.
&&& 这是他总是上学迟到的原因。
&&& 4. 而前半句和后半句由&even&连接，表示递进。递进关系表示叙述角度没有发生转变，也就是没有增添新的内容，所以在被简化后，递进部分的内容并不是那么重要。因此，对于该句的简化题来说正确答案必须体现因果关系，而递进关系则可有可无。
&&& 5. 后半句中的&they&指代的是前半句中的&infants and toddlers&；&such remembering&指代的是前半句中的&form extremely enduring memories&。&remember&的意思是&深深记在心里；铭记&。对后半句的理解可能大家会觉得有点难度，需要仔细体会才行。
&&& 本文内容来自刘文勇老师微信空中课堂&百日百句百篇&系列，关注文勇老师微信，可免费参加文勇老师微信空中课堂，微信账号为：liuwenyonglasedu。
&&& 本文同系列的托福TPO阅读难句解析与翻译文章，已集结成册正式出版，书名为。
&&& 本文内容严禁转载！
&&& 基于今天翻译的句子扩充而来的百段写文章请。
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energy and the industrial revolution
paragraph 1
for years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the industrial revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. however, by the eighteenth century, great britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. great britain had l however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. this was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.
paragraph 2
in the late 1700s james watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a 1 variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. the engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. a rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. the shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. production of british cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became great britain's most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. the success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the m consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.
paragraph 3
the availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the transformation of the iron industry. charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. the resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s great britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. the developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.
paragraph 4
steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further implications. improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. parallel rails had long been used in j mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. however, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the industrial revolution. as transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. also, the availability of jobs in railway jj construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. when the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.
paragraph 1
for years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the industrial revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. however, by the eighteenth century, great britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. great britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. this was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.
1、why does the author provide the information that "great britain had large amounts of coal"?to reject the claim that britain was facing an energy shortage in the eighteenth centuryto explain why coal rather than other energy resources became the primary source of heat for homes andindustries in eighteenth-century britainto indicate that britain's energy shortage was not the result of a lack of fuelto explain why coal mining became an important industry in nineteenth-century
2、what was "the problem of energy" that had to be solved to make the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century possible?water and wind could not be used efficiently.there was no efficient way to power machinery.steam engines required large amounts of coal, which was in short supply.neither humans nor animals were strong enough to provide the power required for industrial application.
paragraph 2
in the late 1700s james watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a 1 variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. the engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. a rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. the shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. production of british cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became great britain's most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. the success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the m consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.
3、which of the following is not mentioned in paragraph 2 as a development in cotton mills brought about by watt's steam engine?the importing of huge quantities of raw cotton by britainincreased mechanizationmore possibilities for mill locationsmaller mills
4、the phrase "apparent in" in the passage is closest in meaning toclearly seen inaid inassociated withfollowed by
5、according to paragraph 2, what was britain's most important export by 1850?raw cottoncotton clothsteam-powered pumpscoal
6、the word "consequent" in the passage is closest in meaning toresultingencouragingwell documentedimmediate
7、what is the role of paragraph 2 in the passage as a whole?it explains how by increasing the supply of raw materials from other countries, british industries were able to reduce costs and increase production.it explains how the production of mechanical energy and its benefits spread quickly across countries that were linked commercially with great britain.it demonstrates why developments in a single industry could not have caused the industrial revolution.it illustrates why historians have assigned igreat importance to the issue of energy in the rise of the industrial revolution.
paragraph 3
the availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the transformation of the iron industry. charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. the resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s great britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. the developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.
8、according to paragraph 3, why was the use of coke important for the iron industry?it helped make wood into charcoal.it reduced the dependency on steam-powered machines used for the production of iron.it replaced charcoal in the production of raw and refined iron.it powered the machines used to extract coal in coal mines.
9、according to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the iron industry in great britain during the 1800s except:steam-driven bellows were used to prhlice raw iron.by the 1850s britain was the world's largest producer of iron.steam-powered mills made it possible to produce iron of different shapes and sizes.greater demand for higher-quality iron increased its price.
paragraph 4
steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further implications. improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. parallel rails had long been used in j mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. ■ however, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the industrial revolution. ■ as transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. ■ greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. ■ also, the availability of jobs in railway jj construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. when the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.
10、the word "initiated" in the passage is closest in meaning toanticipatedacceleratedspreadstarted
11、paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the transformation in rail transportation?because railway construction employed mostly rural laborers, unemployment increased among urban workers.it resulted in more trade within the country, but less trade with markets that could be reached only by ocean shipping.it made shipping freight overland to distant markets less expensive.it resulted in higher wages for factory workers.
12、the phrase "accustomed to" in the passage is closest in meaning toin need ofused totired ofencouraged by
13、look at the four squares [■] that indicatewhere the following sentence could be added to the passage.
the first steam-powered locomotives were slow but they rapidly improved in speed and carrying capacity.
14、direction: an introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. this question is worth 2 points.
the coming of the industrial revolution in eighteenth-century britain depended on the development of the steam engine to power machinery.
answer choicesa. for years, historians disregarded the issue of energy as a major element in the rise of the industrialrevolution and focused instead on technological developments and increased production.b. the introduction and growth of steam-powered rail transport was a major factor in britain's economicexpansion during the industrial revolution.c. an expansion of the industrial revolution outside great britain occurred when british industries began toimport raw cotton and high-quality iron.d. by 1850, the use of steam power in britain's mills, mines, and iron industry made britain a world leader inthe production of cotton cloth and iron.e. since the basic infrastructure was in place, the industrial revolution fueled itself with enlarging marketsrequiring ever more expansion of factories and workforce.f. by the end of the 1800s, railway construction attracted so many laborers that factories could not findenough workers to keep up with increasing sales.
energy and the industrial revolution能源和工业革命
文章词汇总结☻steam engine蒸汽机;☻iron industry钢铁行业;☻productivity生产力;☻mechanize机械化;☻coal煤☻efficiency效率☻working class工人阶级☻industrial revolution工业革命;
文章中英文对照
for years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the industrial revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. however, by the eighteenth century, great britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. great britain had l however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. this was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine.
数年来，历史学家一直试图界定18世纪工业革命中工业、科技、和经济实力崛起的关键因素。很多历史学家将之归功于能源问题。18世纪之前人们依赖于工厂，畜力和人力来提供动力。水能和风能利用效率的不断提升促进了抽水，碾磨和航海等活动的开展。然而到了18世纪，尤其是英国经历着能源短缺的困扰。木材是家庭和工业供暖的主要来源，也被加工成木炭用于钢铁行业，其供应正在不断的减少。英国有大量的煤，然而却缺乏产生机械能和为机器提供动力的有效方式。这恰好与蒸汽机的崛起的时机相一致.
in the late 1700s james watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. the engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. a rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. the shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. production of british cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became great britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. the success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.
在18世纪晚期，詹姆斯瓦特发明了高效而又商业上可行的蒸汽机。随着蒸汽机越来越便宜，它被广泛运用各个工业领域。这个机器解决了煤矿地下水的排水问题，增加了可以给其他的蒸汽机提供能量的煤的产量。在蒸汽机上附加转轮发动机就能使转动轴转动，从而驱动机器工作，这样工厂就可以利用蒸汽机来纺织和织棉花。因为蒸汽机靠煤来驱动，大的工厂就不需要依河而建，因为有些工厂使用水驱动的机器。棉花生产的机械化不断增加，这一转变在原棉的进口和棉制品的销售上凸显出来。在1760年和1850年间，原棉进口量增加了230倍。英国的棉制品产量增加了60倍，棉布成为英国最重要的产品，占总出口的一半。蒸汽机的成功导致煤需求的增长。随着蒸汽驱动的水泵从不断深入的地下水位以下的煤层中抽水，煤的产量的进一步增长便成为可能。
the availability of steam power and the demands for new machines facilitated the transformation of the iron industry. charcoal, made from wood and thus in limited supply, was replaced with coal-derived coke (substance left after coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into use for producing of raw iron. impurities were burnt away with the use of coke, producing a high-quality refined iron. reduced cost was also instrumental in developing steam-powered rolling mills capable of producing finished iron of various shapes and sizes. the resulting boom in the iron industry expanded the annual iron output by more than 170 times between 1740 and 1840, and by the 1850s great britain was producing more tons of iron than the rest of the world combined. the developments in the iron industry were in part a response to the demand for more machines and the ever-widening use of higher-quality iron in other industries.
蒸汽动力的有效性和对新机器的需求促进了钢铁行业的转型。木炭由木材制成，因此供应量有限，随着蒸汽驱动的风箱被用于生铁的生产，木炭已经被从煤中提炼的焦煤（煤加热后遗留的物质）所替代。因为焦煤的使用，生铁中的杂质被燃烧完，从而生产出高质量的精炼铁。降低的成本又能促进蒸汽驱动的钢铁轧钢厂的发展，这些轧钢厂能够生产各种样式和大小的成品钢铁。钢铁行业的繁荣使钢铁的产量在1740年到1840年期间增长170了多倍。到19世纪五十年代，英国生产的钢铁比世界其他地区的生产钢铁的总和还要高。钢铁行业的发展部分是由于其他行业对于机器需求的增加和高质量的钢铁在其他行业的越来越广泛的应用。
steam power and iron combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn had further implications. improvements in road construction and sailing had occurred, but shipping heavy freight over land remained expensive, even with the use of rivers and canals wherever possible. parallel rails had long been used in mining operations to move bigger loads, but horses were still the primary source of power. ■however, the arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete transformation in rail transportation, entrenching and expanding the industrial revolution. ■as transportation improved, distant and larger markets within the nation could be reached, thereby encouraging the development of larger factories to keep pace with increasing sales. ■greater productivity and rising demands provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be reinvested to take advantage of new technologies to further expand capacity, or to seek alternative investment opportunities. ■also, the availability of jobs in railway construction attracted many rural laborers accustomed to seasonal and temporary employment. when the work was completed, many moved to other construction jobs or to factory work in cities and towns, where they became part of an expanding working class.
蒸汽动力和钢铁使交通运输发生了彻底的变革，而交通运输反过来对蒸汽动力和钢铁也产生了进一步的影响。道路建设和航海的改善已经初步成效，但是船运输重型货物到陆地仍然很昂贵，即使在可以用到河流和运河的地方。并行铁路早已被使用于采矿作业来运输更大的负重物，但是马仍然是那是主要的动力源。然而，蒸汽机的到来引发了铁路运输的彻底变革，巩固和扩大了工业革命的成果。随着交通运输的改善，人们就能够进入到国内远处的更大的市场，鼓励大型的工厂的生产跟上增长的销售的步伐。不断提高的生产力和不断增加的需求给企业家提供了利润，这种利润可以再投资于新技术，进一步扩大产能或寻求其他的投资机会。铁路建设中所产生的工作机会吸引了很多农村的劳动力来适应于季节性的临时性的工作。当工作被完成后，很多劳动力又转到到其他的建造的工作或者在城市和城镇的工厂工作。在那里，他们成为不断扩大的工人阶级的一部分。
survival of plants and animals in desert conditions
paragraph 1
the harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are
water is a raw material in the vital proce and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. water controls the volume of plant matter produced. the distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
paragraph 2
the nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. there are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
paragraph 3
the ephemeral plants evade drought. given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. this replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. the seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
paragraph 4
the perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by mear of various avoidance mechanisms. most desert plants are 11 probably best classified as xerophytes. they possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, am by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. it is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. some plants are woody in type ― an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. these have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. they commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
paragraph 5
animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
paragraph 6
seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. the term retreat is applied i to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
paragraph 7
some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. for example, the ostrich has 1 plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not \ too dense. when conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its 1 back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. the sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection.furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the sun an0 gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling.
paragraph 1
the harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are
water is a raw material in the vital proce and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. water controls the volume of plant matter produced. the distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
1、according to paragraph 1, water provides all of the following essential functions for plants exceptimproving plants' ability to absorb sunlightpreventing plants from becoming overheatedtransporting nutrientsserving as a raw material for photosynthesis
paragraph 3
the ephemeral plants evade drought. given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. this replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. the seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
2、paragraph 3 suggests that during a dry year ephemeralsproduce even more seeds than in a wet yeardo not sprout from their seedsbloom much later than in a wet yearare more plentiful than perennials
paragraph 2
the nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. there are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
paragraph 3
the ephemeral plants evade drought. given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. this replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. the seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
3、how is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3?paragraph 2 provides a general description of desc plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations.paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories.paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification.paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants.
4、in saying that ephemerals will develop "vigorously" when there is favorable precipitation, the author means that their development will besuddenearlygradualstronghealthy
paragraph 4
the perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by mear of various avoidance mechanisms. most desert plants are 11 probably best classified as xerophytes. they possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, am by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. it is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. some plants are woody in type ― an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. these have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. they commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
5、the word "countering" in the passage is closest in meaning toeliminatingmaking use ofacting againstexperiencing
6、according to paragraph 4, some desert plants with root systems that are extraordinarily well developed haverelatively little growth abovegroundvery leafy aboveground structuresnonwoody plant tissue resistant to wiltingwater stored within their roots
7、the word "assured" in the passage is closest in meaning topurediminishedguaranteeddeep
8、what do "the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite" have in common?they are always found together.they depend on surface water provided by streams, springs, and lakes.they are phreatophytes.their roots are capable of breaking through hard soils
paragraph 5
animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
9、which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted 1 sentence in the passage? incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.one way animals escape is by entering a state of extended dormancy, known as aestivation, during the hottest and driest times of year.animals can escape without using direct action, or aestivation, simply by reducing their metabolic rate and body temperature.the actions that an animal uses to escape are known as aestivation, which sometimes involves a reduction in metabolic rate or body temperature.when the weather is especially hot and dry, an animal may suffer from a condition known as aestivation, at which point the animal needs to escape.
10、it can be inferred from paragraph 5 that all of the places desert animals retreat toprovide shade from the sunsometimes become crowdedare places where supplies of food are plentifulleave the animals vulnerable to predators
paragraph 7
some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. for example, the ostrich has 1 plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not \ too dense. when conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its 1 back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. the sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection.furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the sun an0 gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling.
11、according to paragraph 7, what special adaptation helps the ostrich cope with hot desert conditions?each of its feathers is very short and dense.its wings produce only lateral air movement when flapping.its feathers are very thickly set on both its back and its wings.it can make its feathers stand up on its if back.
12、look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
the increase in reward still did not attract young people to this hard life, and convicted criminals and slaves were pressed into services
where would the sentence best fit?
paragraph 1
the harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are
water is a raw material in the vital proce and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. ■ water controls the volume of plant matter produced. ■ the distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. ■ some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do. ■
13. directions: from the seven statements below, select the statements that correctly characterize breathing duringwakefulness and those statements that correctly characterize breathing during sleep. drag each answer choice you select into the appropriate box of the table. two of the answer choices will not be used. this question is worth 3 points.
adaptations of annuals bffive of the phrases will not be used.a. woody structuresb. explosive growth in wet yearsc. long, thin, shallow rootsd. storage of water in plant tissuee. minimization of the amount of water used for
adaptations of perennials adgfour of the phrases will not be used,a. woody structuresb. explosive growth in wet yearsc. long, thin, shallow rootsd. storage of water in plant tissuee. minimization of the amount of water used for photosynthesisf. short life cycleg. leaves designed to minimize water loss
survival of plants and animals in desert conditions沙漠环境中植物和动物的生存
文章词汇总结☻常年生植物perennial；☻一年生植物annual；☻光合作用photosynthesis；☻降水precipitation；☻开花bloom；☻养分nutrition；☻枯萎wilt；☻毛孔pore；☻干旱drought；☻干旱的arid；☻休眠dormancy
文章中英文对照翻译
the harsh conditions in deserts are intolerable for most plants and animals. despite these conditions, however, many varieties of plants and animals have adapted to deserts in a number of ways. most plant tissues die if their water content falls too low: the nutrients that feed plants are
water is a raw material in the vital proce and water regulates the temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb heat and because water vapor lost to the atmosphere through the leaves helps to lower plant temperatures. water controls the volume of plant matter produced. the distribution of plants within different areas of desert is also controlled by water. some areas, because of their soil texture, topographical position, or distance from rivers or groundwater, have virtually no water available to plants, whereas others do.
沙漠的严酷环境对于大部分的植物和动物来说都是难以忍受的，尽管如此，很多不同种类的植物和动物仍然能以各种方式适应于沙漠的环境。如果含水量太低，大多数植物会死亡。水不仅输送给植物养分，也是植物光合作用这个关键过程中的原材料；水通过吸收热来调节植物的温度，因为水蒸气通过叶子进入大气可以降低植物的温度。水控制着植物物质的产量，也控制着植物在不同沙漠地区的分布。由于土壤质地、地形位置或与河流、地下水的距离的因素，一些沙漠地区缺乏供给植物的水，而其他的区域却有提供给植物的水。
the nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. there are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain.
沙漠植物的特征与他们对普遍存在的干旱的适应性相关。沙漠的植物大体分为两类：生命较长的常年生植物，这种植物含水多，通常是矮小的木本植物；一年生植物或者短生植物，这种植物生命周期比较短，可以在雨后形成一个密集高大的植物群。
the ephemeral plants evade drought. given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. this replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. the seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again.
短生植物可以避开干旱时期，若在降水充沛的年份，这种植物可以茂盛的生长，并繁殖出大量花和果实，从而补充了沙漠土壤中种子的含量。然后这些种子会休眠到下一个沙漠植物再次开花的湿润的年份。
the perennial vegetation adjusts to the aridity by means of various avoidance mechanisms. most desert plants are probably best classified as xerophytes. they possess drought-resisting adaptations: loss of water through the leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering waxy leaf surfaces, by the closure of pores during the hottest times to reduce water loss, and by the rolling up or shedding of leaves at the beginning of the dry season. some xerophytes, the succulents (including cacti), store water in their structures. another way of countering drought is to have a limited amount of mass above ground and to have extensive root networks below ground. it is not unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to extend downward more than ten meters. some plants are woody in type ―an adaptation designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue when water stress produces wilting. another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte. these have adapted to the environment by the development of long taproots that penetrate downward until they approach the assured water supply provided by groundwater. among these plants are the date palm, tamarisk, and mesquite. they commonly grow near stream channels, springs, or on the margins of lakes.
常年生植物通过各种回避机制来适应于干旱。更确切的说，大部分沙漠植物属于旱生植物。他们具备抗旱的适应性：覆盖蜡质叶子表面的浓密的茸毛，在最炎热的时期关闭细孔，在干旱季节初期卷起叶子或者脱落叶子，这些都可以减少经过叶子的水的流失。一些旱生植物，如肉质植物（包括仙人掌）在他们自身的结构组织中储存水。另外一个抵御干旱的方式是在地表上限制植物生长，在地表下有错综复杂的根系网络。一些沙漠的常年生植物的根能够向下伸展十多米深。有些植物属于木质植物，这一适应性的特征可防止水压导致植物枯萎时植物组织的崩溃。另外一类沙漠植物是深根植物，这种植物通过繁衍长的主根来适应环境，这些主根能够直达地下水提供的充足水源。海枣树、柽柳牡豆树属于这类植物。他们通常生长在河道河床，泉水或者湖泊的附近。
animals also have to adapt to desert conditions, and they may do it through two forms of behavioral adaptation: they either escape or retreat. escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells.
动物同样需要适应沙漠的环境，它们以主要两种形式来适应：逃避或撤离。逃避的行为如夏眠，动物通过长时间的休眠或蛰伏在最炎热或最干燥的时期减少他们的代谢率和体温。seasonal migration is another form of escape, especially for large mammals or birds. the term retreat is applied to the short-term escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually assumes the pattern of a daily rhythm. birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and dense shrubs to avoid the hottest hours of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat burrow underground.
季节性的迁徙是另一种逃避的方式，尤其是对于大型的哺乳动物和鸟类。这里的术语“撤离”是指沙漠动物的短期逃避行为，常常以天为节奏的模式。鸟类隐匿在鸟窝，岩石悬垂处，树丛中和浓密的灌木来躲避一天中最炎热的时段，而像更格卢鼠等哺乳动物会藏到地下的洞穴中some animals have behavioral, physiological, and morphological (structural) adaptations that enable them to withstand extreme conditions. for example, the ostrich has plumage that is so constructed that the feathers are long but not too dense. when conditions are hot, the ostrich erects them on its back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier between solar radiation and the skin. the sparse distribution of the feathers, however, also allows considerable lateral air movement over the skin surface, thereby permitting further heat loss by convection. furthermore, the birds orient themselves carefully with regard to the sun and gently flap their wings to increase convection cooling.
一些动物在行为，生理和形态学上的适应能力允许他们承受极端的环境，例如，鸵鸟的羽毛具有这种结构特征：毛很长但却不浓密。在炎热的环境，鸵鸟就会竖起背部的羽毛，以此增加羽毛这层太阳辐射和皮肤之间的屏障的厚度。羽毛稀疏的分布，同样使得皮肤表面横向空气流动得以进行，而羽毛的热量也进一步通过对流散发。此外，鸟类根据太阳的位置谨慎调整着的自己的方向，轻轻地拍打着翅膀增加对流降温。
