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你可能喜欢How cooking oil is made - material, manufacture, making, history, used, processing, parts, components, procedure, steps, product, industry, machine, Raw Materials
Cooking Oil
Background
Cooking oil consists of edible vegetable oils derived from olives,
peanuts, and safflowers, to name just a few of the many plants that are
used. Liquid at room temperature, cooking oils are sometimes added during
the preparation of processed foods. They are also used to fry foods and to
make salad dressing.
People in many regions began to process vegetable oils thousands of years
ago, utilizing whatever food stuffs they had on hand to obtain oils for a
variety of cooking purposes. Early peoples learned to use the sun, a fire,
or an oven to heat oily plant products until the plants exuded oil that
could then be collected. The Chinese and Japanese produced soy oil as
early as 2000
, while southern Europeans had begun to produce olive oil by 3000
In Mexico and North America, peanuts and sunflower seeds were roasted and
beaten into a paste before b the oil that rose to the
surface was then skimmed off. Africans also grated and beat palm kernels
and coconut meat and then boiled the resulting pulp, skimming the hot oil
off the water. Some oils have become available only recently, as
extraction technology has improved. Corn oil first became available in the
1960s. Cotton oil, watermelon seed oil, grapeseed oil, and others are now
being considered as ways to make use of seeds that were, until recently,
considered waste.
The first efforts to increase output were undertaken independently in
China, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, among other places. Using a spherical or
conical stone mortar and pestle, vertical or horizontal millstones, or
simply their feet, people began to crush vegetable matter to increase its
available surface area. The ground material would subsequently be placed
in sieves such as shallow, flat wicker baskets that were stacked,
sometimes as many as 50 high. The matter was then pressed using lever or
wedge presses. The Greeks and Romans improved this process by introducing
edge runners to grind and a winch or screw to operate a lever press. Their
method was used throughout the Middle Ages.
Refinements of this approach included a stamper press that was invented in
Holland in the 1600s and used until the 1800s to extract oil, a roll mill
invented by English engineer John Smeaton in 1750 to crush vegetable
matter more efficiently, and the hydraulic press, invented by Joseph
Bramah in England. The first improved screw press was invented by V. D.
Anderson in the United States in 1876. His
(a trade name) continuously operated a cage press. When vegetable matter
was placed in Anderson's closed press, the resultant oil drained
out of slots in the side. A screw increased the pressure through the cage
toward a restricted opening.
Enhancements in grinding and pressing plant matter were followed by
improvements in extracting the oil. In 1856, Deiss of England obtained the
first patent for extraction of oil using solvents, following experiments
by Jesse Fisher in 1843. At first, solvents such as benzene were pumped
through the material and drained through false perforated bottoms. Later,
Bollman and Hildebrandt of Germany independently developed continuous
systems that sprayed the material with solvent. Both methods were
eventually improved, and today solvent extraction is standard in the
vegetable oil industry.
Cooking oil manufacture involves cleaning the seeds, grinding them,
pressing, and extrading the oil from them. In extracting, a volatile
hydrocarbon such as hexane is used as a solvent.
After extracting, the oil is refined, mixed with an alkaline
substance, and washed in a centrifuge. Further washing and refining
follows, and then the oil is filtered and/or distilled. It is then
ready for packaging.
Over time extracting vegetable oils has become more and more efficient.
The very earliest methods of pressing the vegetable matter probably
obtained, at best, 10 percent of the oil available. On the other hand,
more modern methods involving solvent extraction can extract all but. 5 to
2 percent of the oil.
Raw Materials
The average bottle of cooking oil contains vegetable oil, with no
additives, preservatives, or special flavorings. The oil comes from
various parts of plants, in most cases from what are commonly called seeds
(including sunflower, palm kernel, safflower, cotton, sesame, and
grapeseed oils) or nuts (including peanut, soybean, almond, and walnut
oils). A few special cases involve merely squeezing the oil from the flesh
of the fruit of the plant. For example, coconut oil comes from the
coconut's white meat, palm oil from the pulp of the palm fruit, and
olive oil from the flesh of fresh olives. Atypically, corn oil is derived
from the germ (embryo) of the kernel.
The Manufacturing
Some vegetable oils, such as olive, peanut, and some coconut and sunflower
oils, are cold-pressed. This method, which entails minimal processing,
produces a light, flavorful oil suitable for some cooking needs. Most oil
sources, however, are not suitable for cold pressing, because it would
leave many undesirable trace elements in the oil, causing it to be
odiferous, bitter tasting, or dark. These oils undergo many steps beyond
mere extraction to produce a bland, clear, and consistent oil.
Cleaning and grinding
1 Incoming oil seeds are passed over magnets to remove any trace metal
before being dehulled, deskinned, or otherwise stripped of all
extraneous material. In the case of cotton, the ginned seeds must be
stripped of their lint as well as dehulled. In the case of corn, the
kernel must undergo milling to separate the germ.
2 The stripped seeds or nuts are then ground into coarse meal to provide
more surface area to be pressed. Mechanized grooved rollers or hammer
mills crush the material to the proper consistency. The meal is then
heated to facilitate the extraction of the oil. While the procedure
allows more oil to be pressed out, more impurities are also pressed out
with the oil, and these must be removed before the oil can be deemed
3 The heated meal is then fed continuously into a screw press, which
increases the pressure progressively as the meal passes through a
slotted barrel. Pressure generally increases from 68,950 to 20,6850
kilopascals as the oil is squeezed out from the slots in the barrel,
where it can be recovered.
Extracting additional oil with solvents
4 Soybeans are usually not pressed at all before solvent extraction,
because they have relatively little oil, but most oil seeds with more
oil are pressed and solvent-treated. After the initial oil has been
recovered from the screw press, the
remaining in the press is processed by solvent extraction to attain the
maximum yield. A volatile hydrocarbon (most commonly hexane) dissolves
the oil out of the oil cake, which is then recovered by distilling the
light solvent out. The Blaw-Knox Rotocell is used to meet the demands of
the United States soybean oil industry. In using this machine, flakes of
meal are sent through wedge-shaped cells of a cylindrical vessel. The
solvent then passes through the matter to be collected at the bottom.
Also still in use by a significant number of manufacturers is the
Bollman or Hansa-Muhle unit, in which oilseed flakes are placed in
perforated baskets that circulate continuously. The solvent percolates
through the matter which is periodically dumped and replaced.
Removing solvent traces
5 Ninety percent of the solvent remaining in the extracted oil simply
evaporates, and, as it does, it is collected for reuse. The rest is
retrieved with the use of a stripping column. The oil is boiled by
steam, and the lighter hexane floats upward. As it condenses, it, too,
is collected.
Refining the oil
6 The oil is next refined to remove color, odor, and bitterness.
Refining consists of heating the oil to between 107 and 188 degrees
Fahrenheit (40 and 85 degrees Celsius) and mixing an alkaline substance
such as sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate with it. Soap forms from
the undesired fatty acids and the alkaline additive, and it is usually
removed by centrifuge. The oil is further washed to remove traces of
soap and then dried.
7 Oils are also degummed at this time by treating them with water heated
to between 188 and 206 degrees Fahrenheit (85 and 95 degrees Celsius),
steam, or water with acid. The gums, most of which are phosphatides,
precipitate out, and the dregs are removed by centrifuge.
8 Oil that will be heated (for use in cooking) is then bleached by
filtering it through fuller's earth, activated carbon, or
activated clays that absorb certain pigmented material from the oil. By
contrast, oil that will undergo refrigeration (because it is intended
for salad dressing, for example) is winterized—rapidly chilled
and filtered to remove waxes. This procedure ensures that the oil will
not partially solidify in the refrigerator.
9 Finally, the oil is deodorized. In this process, steam is passed over
hot oil in a vacuum at between 440 and 485 degrees Fahrenheit (225 and
250 degrees Celsius), thus allowing the volatile taste and odor
components to distill from the oil. Typically, citric acid at. 01
percent is also added to oil after deodorization to inactivate trace
metals that might promote oxidation within the oil and hence shorten its
shelf-life.
Packaging the oil
10 The completely processed oil is then I
measured and poured into clean containers, usually plastic bottles for
domestic oils to be sold in supermarkets, glass bottles for imports or
domestic oils to be sold in specialty stores, or cans for imports
(usually olive oil).
By products/Waste
The most obvious byproduct of the oil making process is oil seed cake.
Most kinds of seed cake are used to make animal feed and low-grade
others are simply disposed of. In the case of cotton, the lint
on the seed is used to make yarn and cellulose that go into such products
mattresses, rayon,
and lacquer. Coconut oil generates several byproducts, with various uses:
desiccated coconut meat
is used in the confectionery
the fiber from the outer coat, is used to make mats and rope. Since corn
oil is derived from a small portion of the entire kernel, it creates corn
meal and hominy if it is dry milled, and corn starch and corn syrup if it
is wet milled.
Lecithin is a byproduct of the degumming process used in making soybean
oil. This industrially valuable product is used to make animal feed,
chocolate,
cosmetics, soap,
and plastics—to name just a few of its diverse uses. Recent
research has focused on utilizing the residual oil seed cake. The cake is
high in protein and other nutrients, and researchers are working to
develop methods of processing it into a palatable food that can be
distributed in areas where people lack sufficient protein in their diets.
This goal requires ridding (through additional processing) the oil seed
cake of various undesirable toxins (such as gossypol in cotton seed, or
aflatoxin in peanut meal). Initial results are promising.
Quality Control
The nuts and seeds used to make oil are inspected and graded after harvest
by licensed inspectors in accordance with the United States Grain
Standards Act, and the fat content of the incoming seeds is measured. For
the best oil, the seeds should not be stored at all, or for a only very
short time, since storage increases the chance of deterioration due to
mold, loss of nutrients, and rancidity. The seeds should be stored in
well-ventilated warehouses with a constantly maintained low temperature
and humidity. Pests should be eradicated, and mold growth should be kept
to a minimum. Seeds to be stored must have a low moisture content (around
10 percent), or they should be dried until it reaches this level (dryer
seeds are less likely to encourage the growth of mold).
Processed oil should be consistent in all aspects such as color, taste,
and viscosity. Color is tested using the Lovibund Tintometer or a similar
method in which an experienced observer compares an oil's color
against the shading of standard colored glasses. Experienced tasters also
check the flavor of the oil, and its viscosity is measured using a
viscometer. To use this device, oil is poured into a tube that has a bulb
at one end set off by two marks. The oil is then drained, and the time
required for the bulb to empty is measured and compared to a chart to
determine viscosity.
In addition, the oil should be free of impurities and meet the demands
placed upon it for use in cooking. To ensure this, the product is tested
under controlled conditions to see at what temperature it begins to smoke
smoke point),
flash, warnings are issued appropriately. To allow its
safe use in baking and frying, an oil should have a smoke point of between
402 and 503 degrees Fahrenheit (204 and 260 degrees Celsius). The
temperature is then lowered to test the oil's cloud point. This is
ascertained by chilling 120 milliliters of salad oil to a temperature of
35 degrees Fahrenheit (zero degrees Celsius) for five and a half hours,
during which period acceptable salad oil will not cloud.
Before being filled, the bottles that hold the oil are cleaned and
electronically inspected for foreign material. To prevent oxidation of the
oil (and therefore its tendency to go rancid), the inert (nonreactive) gas
nitrogen is used to fill up the space remaining at the top of the bottle.
Where To Learn More
Hoffman, G.
The Chemistry & Technology of Edible Oils & Fats
& Their High Fat Products.
Academic Press, Inc., 1989.
Kirschenbauer, H. G.
Fats and Oils.
Reinhold Publishing, 1960.
Lawson, Harry W.
Standards for Fats and Oils.
Avi Publishing Company, 1985.
Salunkhe, D. K.
World Oilseeds: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization.
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992.
Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne.
A History of Food.
Blackwell Publishers, 1992.
Periodicals
"A Cook's Tour of Cooking Oils,"
Changing Times,
October 1990, pp. 90-1.
Raloff, Janet. "Grape Seeds Sow Cholesterol Benefits,"
Science News,
27 April 1991, p. 268.
Raloff, Janet. "The Positive Side of Palm Oil,"
Science News,
27 April 1991, p. 268.
Simpson, Matthew. "Heart-Healthful Oils: Choosing the Best
Fats,"
American Health,
October 1990, pp. 88-9.
Sokolov, Raymond. "The Trail of Oil,"
Natural History,
May 1989, pp. 82-5.
Stevens, Jane. "The Power of the (Oilseed) Press,"
Technology Review.
September, 1992, p. 15.
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New High-Quality PharmaGrade Raw Materials
Press Release
SAFC Manufacturing New High-Quality PharmaGrade Raw Materials at Arklow, Ireland, Plant
October 16, 2013 – Press Release
Sigma-Aldrich Corporation's (NASDAQ: SIAL) custom manufacturing services business unit, SAFC(R) Commercial (), has broadened production at its Arklow, Ireland, facility to include new PharmaGrade products. Production of the raw materials began at the site earlier this year and complements the existing offering of highly regulated active and non-active pharmaceutical ingredients manufactured at the site. All products manufactured at the Arklow facility meet and exceed U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) follow Current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMPs) for biopharm and comply with International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development (IQ) requirements.
&Arklow was chosen for this expansion due to its existing specialized and highly regulated manufacturing capability,& said James Ennis, Site Manager for SAFC's Arklow Facility. &All PharmaGrade products offer high purity and are manufactured under controlled processes. The PharmaGrade products from Arklow are manufactured under ICH Q7 guidelines.&
The new PharmaGrade products manufactured at the Arklow facility include difficult-to-source materials available from research- to commercial-scale volumes. The program takes advantage of Arklow's purification, recrystallization and distillation competencies to manufacture a short list of catalog products in the PharmaGrade line, including benzyl alcohol, ethanolamine, fumaric acid, N-acetyl-DL-tryptophan, sodium benzoate, sodium butyrate and hexylene glycol. These specific products began transitioning to the Arklow facility in Q4 of 2011 and were then upgraded to meet PharmaGrade guidelines before production began this year. There are plans to further expand the PharmaGrade product offering from Arklow with D-galactose expected to launch in Q4 of 2013.
&With the addition of products being made in Arklow, the PharmaGrade line now encompasses just under 100 products that offer the right quality for our biopharma and pharma customers, as well as providing additional value through quality documentation packages, readily-available inventory and multiple batches to support customer qualification activities,& said Douglas Bowman, SAFC's Program Manager for PharmaGrade.
SAFC's Arklow facility was originally purpose-built for products that require alkylation, esterification, ester condensation, reduction and Suzuki coupling, and features additional chromatography, crystallization and milling capabilities. With 64,000 cubic meters of space, the Arklow facility is fully cGMP compliant and has consistently passed FDA and Irish Medicines Board (IMB) inspections. It features four separate plants and has reactor capacity of more than 94,000 liters including glass-lined, as well as stainless steel reactors, distillation units, various dryers and ovens and controlled sieving, delumping and packaging space.
You can learn more about the Arklow, Ireland, SAFC facility by . Visit
for more information on the PharmaGrade product line.
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About SAFC: , the custom manufacturing and services business unit of Sigma-Aldrich Corporation, is recognized as a top 10 global specialty chemicals and biologics supplier. As a trusted manufacturer for the life science and high technology industries, SAFC works closely with customers to resolve development challenges and accelerate the product pipeline utilizing its global &Centers of Excellence& and dedicated manufacturing facilities. Its rich portfolio includes high-purity inorganic materials for high technology applications, critical raw materials and extensive biologics safety testing services for biopharmaceutical manufacturing, and complex, high-potent APIs and key intermediates for pharmaceutical manufacturing. For more information, visit .
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is a leading Life Science and High Technology company whose biochemical, organic chemical products, kits and services are used in scientific research, including genomic and proteomic research, biotechnology, pharmaceutical development, the diagnosis of disease and as key components in pharmaceutical, diagnostics and high technology SAFC manufacturing. Sigma-Aldrich customers include more than 1.3 million scientists and technologists in life science companies, university and government institutions, hospitals and industry. The Company operates in 38 countries and has nearly 9,100 employees whose objective is to provide excellent service worldwide. Sigma-Aldrich is committed to accelerating customer success through innovation and leadership in Life Science and High Technology. For more information about Sigma-Aldrich, please visit its website at .
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