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History of Macau
Other Macau topics
- History -
in the 19th century by
(SAR) of the . Macau became a colony of the
in 1557. It was lent to
but remained under Chinese authority and sovereignty. Self-administration was next achieved in the 1840s. When the
signed the
in 1887, the treaty terms made Macau a Portuguese territory again until 1999, when it was handed over to China. Macau was the last extant European territory in continental (on-shore) Asia.
The human history of Macau stretches back up to 6,000 years, and includes many different and diverse civilisations and periods of existence. Evidence of human and culture dating back 4,000 to 6,000 years has been discovered on the
and dating back 5,000 years on .[]
During the
(221–206 BC), the region came under the jurisdiction of ,
of the province of . It was administratively part of
(265–420 AD), and alternated under the control of Nanhai and Dongguan in later dynasties. In 1152, during the
(960–1279 AD), it was under the jurisdiction of the new .
Since the 5th century, merchant ships travelling between Southeast Asia and
used the region as a port for refuge, fresh water, and food. The first recorded inhabitants of the area are some 50,000 people seeking refuge in Macau from invading
in 1277, during the . They were able to defend their settlements and establish themselves there.
has long been the center of Chinese life in Macau and the site of what may be the region's oldest temple, a shrine devoted to the
(Goddess of Mercy).[] Later in the
( AD), fishermen migrated to Macau from various parts of Guangdong and
provinces and built the
where they prayed for safety on the sea. The
were the first to show interest in Macau as a trading centre for the southern provinces. However, Macau did not develop as a major settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century.
Main articles:
The chronology in this section seems to be out of order. . The
may contain suggestions. (January 2012)
Map of the
During the
Portuguese sailors explored the coasts of Africa and Asia. The sailors later established posts at
in 1510, and conquered
in 1511, driving the
to the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula from where he kept making raids on the Portuguese. The Portuguese under
of China in 1513 with a hired junk sailing from . They erected a stone marker at Lintin Island claiming it for the , . In the same year, the Indian Viceroy
commissioned
— a cousin of
to sail to China in order to open up trade relations. Rafael traded with the Chinese merchants in
in that year and in 1516, but was not allowed to move further.
Portugal's king
in 1517 commissioned a diplomatic and trade mission to Canton headed by
The embassy lasted until the death of the emperor
in . The embassy was further rejected by the Chinese
court, which now became less interested in new foreign contacts. The Ming Court was also influenced by reports of misbehaviour of Portuguese elsewhere in China, and by the deposed Sultan of Malacca seeking Chinese assistance to drive the Portuguese out of Malacca.
In 1521 and 1522 several more Portuguese ships reached the trading island
off the coast near Canton, but were driven away by the now hostile Ming authorities.
was a tributary state and ally to
China. When Portugal conquered Malacca in 1511, the Chinese responded with violence against the Portuguese when Portugal sent the diplomatic ambassador,
in 1516. After Pires reached Beijing in 1520 the Chinese decided to arrest the embassy. The deposed Malaccan Sultan
sent another message to China, and this time, China responded by executing the Portuguese diplomatic embassy in . The Malaccans had informed the Chinese of the Portuguese seizure of Malacca, to which the Chinese responded with hostility toward the Portuguese. The Malaccans told the Chinese of the "deception" the Portuguese used, disguising plans for conquering territory as mere trading activities.
Due to the Malaccan Sultan lodging a complaint with the Chinese Emperor against the Portuguese invasion, the Portuguese were greeted with hostility by the Chinese when they arrived in China. The Malaccan Sultan, based in Bintan after fleeing Malacca, sent a message to the Chinese, which combined with Portuguese banditry and violent activity in China, led the Chinese authorities to execute 23 Portuguese and torture the rest of them in jails. After the Portuguese set up posts for trading in China and committed piratical activities and raids in China, the Chinese responded with the complete extermination of the Portuguese in
Pires, a Portuguese trade envoy, was among those who died in the Chinese dungeons.
Good relations between the Portuguese and Chinese Ming Dynasty resumed in the 1540s, when Portuguese aided China in eliminating coastal pirates. The two later began annual trade missions to the offshore
in 1549. A few years later,
Island, closer to the , became the main base of the Portuguese trade in the region.
Diplomatic relations were salvaged by the . In 1557, the Ming court finally gave consent for a permanent and official Portuguese trade base at Macau. In 1558, Leonel de Sousa became the second Portuguese .
Following a ship wreck in 1535, Portuguese traders were allowed to anchor ships in Macau's harbours, and the right to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore.
Macao was first settled by Portuguese survivors of the
by Chinese government soldiers. After the Portuguese raided and pillaged villages around the trading posts in those two cities, the Emperor ruled that all Portuguese encountered everywhere should be killed on the spot. The casualties in total, with the 800 dead Portuguese, totalled 12,000 dead Christians. The massacres resulted in the Portuguese survivors fleeing to , where they were allowed by China to start a colony to build sheds for drying goods in 1557.
They later built some rudimentary stone-houses around the area now called Nam Van. But not until 1557 did the Portuguese establish a permanent settlement in Macau, at an annual rent of 500
(~20 kilograms (44 lb)) of silver. Later that year, the Portuguese established a walled village there. Ground rent payments began in 1573. China retained sovereignty and Chinese residents were subject to Chinese law, but the territory was under Portuguese administration. In 1582 a land lease was signed, and annual rent was paid to Xiangshan County.[]
worker and an official, Malaysia, 1880.
A Chinese official and a woman from , 1880.
The Portuguese continued to pay an annual tribute up to 1863 in order to stay in Macau.
On 24 June 1622, the Dutch attacked Macau in the
with 800 men under Captain Kornelis Reyerszoon, expecting to turn it into a Dutch possession after its conquest. African slaves who fought for the Portuguese repulsed the Dutch attack, and the Dutch never tried to conquer Macau again. The majority of the defenders were Africans slaves, with only a few Portuguese soldiers and Priests.
The Portuguese, often married
women since Han Chinese women would not have relations with them. Some of the Tanka's descendants became . Some Tanka children were enslaved by Portuguese raiders. The Chinese poet Wu Li wrote a poem, which included a line about the Portuguese in Macau being supplied with fish by the Tanka.
Macau and its position in Portuguese and Spanish global trade routes.
The mission of the
used Macau as a point of departure & formation during the 16th century.
After Portuguese permanent settlement in Macau, both Chinese and Portuguese merchants flocked to Macau, although the Portuguese were never numerous (numbering just 900 in 1583 and only 1,200 out of 26,000 in 1640). It quickly became an important node in the development of Portugal's trade along three major routes: Macau-Malacca-Goa-Lisbon, Guangzhou-Macau-Nagasaki and Macau-Manila-Mexico. The Guangzhou-Macau-Nagasaki route was particularly profitable because the Portuguese acted as middlemen, shipping Chinese silks to Japan and Japanese silver to China, pocketing huge markups in the process. This already lucrative trade became even more so when Chinese officials handed Macau's Portuguese traders a monopoly by banning direct trade with Japan in 1547, due to piracy by Chinese and Japanese nationals.
Macau's golden age coincided with the
of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns, between 1580 and 1640. King
was encouraged to not harm the status quo, to allow trade to continue between Portuguese Macau and Spanish Manila, and to not interfere with Portuguese trade with China. In 1587, Philip promoted Macau from "Settlement or Port of the Name of God" to "City of the Name of God" (Cidade do Nome de Deus de Macau).
The alliance of Portugal with Spain meant that Portuguese colonies became targets for the Netherlands, which was embroiled at the time in a lengthy struggle for its independence from Spain, the . After the
was founded in 1602, the Dutch unsuccessfully attacked Macau several times, culminating in a , when 800 attackers were successfully repelled by 150 Macanese and Portuguese defenders. One of the first actions of Macau's first governor, who arrived the following year, was to strengthen the city's defences, which included the construction of the .
As well as being an important trading post, Macau was a center of activity for Catholic missionaries, as it was seen as a gateway for the conversion of the vast populations of China and Japan.
had first arrived in the 1560s and were followed by
in the 1580s. Both orders soon set about constructing churches and schools, the most notable of which were the Jesuit
built by the Dominicans. In 1576, Macau was established as an
appointed as the first bishop.
The full title awarded to Macau by King
is still displayed to this day inside the , though the building and emblem itself date from the 19th century.
Macau in the 19 Vue générale de Macau painted by Auguste Borget ().
In 1637, increasing suspicion of the intentions of Spanish and Portuguese Catholic missionaries in Japan finally led the
to seal Japan off from all foreign influence. Later named the
period, this meant that no Japanese were allowed to leave the country (or return if they were living abroad), and no foreign ship was allowed to dock in a Japanese port. An exception was made for the Protestant Dutch, who were allowed to continue to trade with Japan from the confines of a small man-made island in Nagasaki, . Macau's most profitable trade route, that between Japan and China, had been severed. The crisis was compounded two years later by the loss of Malacca to the Dutch in 1641, damaging the link with Goa.
The news that the Portuguese
had regained control of the Crown from the
took two years to reach Macau, arriving in 1642. A ten-week celebration ensued, and despite its new-found poverty, Macau sent gifts to the new King
along with expressions of loyalty. In return, the King rewarded Macau with the addition of the words "There is none more Loyal" to its existing title. Macau was now "City of the Name of God in China, There is none more loyal". ("N?o há outra mais Leal" [  ]).
Macau, ca. 1870.
In 1685, the privileged position of the Portuguese in trade with China ended, following a decision by the emperor of China to allow trade with all foreign countries. Over the next century, England, Holland, France, Denmark, Sweden, the United States and Russia moved in, establishing factories and offices in
and Macau. British trading dominance in the 1790s was unsuccessfully challenged by a combined French and Spanish naval squadron at the
of 27 January 1799.
Until 20 April 1844 Macau was under the jurisdiction of Portugal's Indian colonies, the so-called "Estado português da India" (), but after this date, it, along with , was accorded recognition by Lisbon (but not by Beijing) as an overseas province of Portugal. The
was signed in a temple in Macau on 3 July 1844. The temple was used by a Chinese judicial administrator, who also oversaw matters concerning foreigners, and was located in the village of Mong Há. The Templo de Kun Iam was the site where, on 3 July 1844, the treaty of Wangxia (named after the village of Mong Ha where the temple was located) was signed by representatives of the United States and China. This marked the official beginning of Sino-US relations.
Street scene in Macau in the 1840s, by .
1888 German map of Hong Kong, Macau, and Canton (now )
After China ceded Hong Kong to the British in 1842, Macau's position as a major regional trading centre declined further still because larger ships were drawn to the deep water port of .[] In an attempt to reverse the decline, Portugal declared Macau a , expelled Chinese officials and soldiers, and thereafter levied taxes on Chinese residents. In 1848, there was a
that was put down.
Portugal continued to pay rent to China until 1849, when the Portuguese abolished the Chinese customs house and declared Macau's "independence", a year which also saw Chinese retaliation and finally the assassination of Gov.
during the so-called . Portugal gained control of the island of Wanzai ( by the Portuguese and now as Wanzaizhen), to the northwest of Macau and which now is under the jurisdiction of
(), in 1849 but relinquished it in 1887. Control over
(氹仔 in Chinese, : Tam5 Zai2; : Dàngzǎi) and Coloane (路環 in Chinese, Jyutping: Lou6 Waan4; pinying: Lùhuán), two islands south of Macau, was obtained between 1851 and 1864. Macau and East Timor were again combined as an overseas province of Portugal under control of Goa in 1883. The Protocol Respecting the Relations Between the Two Countries (signed in Lisbon 26 March 1887) and the
(signed in Beijing on 1 December 1887) confirmed "perpetual occupation and government" of Macau by Portugal (with Portugal's promise "never to alienate Macau and dependencies without agreement with China" in the treaty). Taipa and Coloane were also ceded to Portugal, but the border with the mainland was not delimited. Ilha Verde (青洲 in Chinese, Jyutping: Ceng1 Zau1 or Cing1 Zau1; pinyin: Qīngzhōu) was incorporated into Macau's territory in 1890, and, once a kilometre offshore, by 1923 it had been absorbed into peninsula Macau through .[]
In 1871, the
was founded as a traditional Chinese medical hospital. It was in 1892 that doctor
brought Western medicine services to the hospital.
From 1848 to about the early 1870s, Macau was the infamous transit port of a trade of
(or slave labourers) from southern China. Most of them were kidnapped from the
province and were shipped off in packed vessels to , Peru, or other South American ports to work on plantations or in mines. Many died on the way there due to malnutrition, disease, or other mistreatment. The Dea del Mar which had set sail to
from Macau in 1865 with 550 Chinese on board, arrived in
with only 162 of them still alive.
Macau became a refugee center during WWII causing its population to climb from about 200 thousand to about 700 thousand people within a few years. There had been also food shortages in Macau leading to food rationing and in some cases cannibalism.
Unlike in the case of
which was occupied by the Japanese in 1942 along with Dutch Timor, the Japanese respected Portuguese neutrality in Macau, but only up to a point. As such, Macau enjoyed a brief period of economic prosperity as the only neutral port in South China, after the Japanese had occupied Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong. In August 1943, Japanese troops seized the British steamer Sian in Macau and killed about 20 guards. The next month they demanded the installation of Japanese "advisors" under the alternative of military occupation. The result was that a virtual Japanese
was created over Macau. Japanese domination ended in August 1945.
When it was discovered that neutral Macau was planning to sell aviation fuel to Japan, aircraft from the
bombed and strafed the hangar of the Naval Aviation Centre on 16 January 1945 to destroy the fuel. American air raids on targets in Macau were also made on 25 February and 11 June 1945. Following Portuguese government protest, in 1950 the United States paid US$20,255,952 to the government of Portugal.
came to power in 1949, they declared the Protocol of Lisbon to be invalid as an "" imposed by foreigners on China. However, Beijing was not ready to settle the treaty question, leaving the maintenance of "the status quo" until a more appropriate time. Beijing took a similar position on treaties relating to the Hong Kong territories of the United Kingdom.
In 1951, the
regime declared Macau, as well as other Portuguese colonies, an "" of Portugal.
During the 1950s and 1960s Macao's border crossing to China
was also referred to as Far Eastern Checkpoint Charlie with a major border incident happening in 1952 with Portuguese African Troops exchanging fire with Chinese Communist border guards. According to reports, the exchange lasted for 1-and-three-quarter hours leaving one dead and several dozens injured on Macau side and more than 100 casualties claimed on the Communist Chinese side.
In 1954, the
was established, first as a treasure hunt throughout the city and in later years as formal car racing event.
In 1962, the gambling industry of Macau saw a major breakthrough when the government granted the
(STDM), a syndicate jointly formed by Hong Kong and Macau businessmen, the monopoly rights to all forms of gambling. The STDM introduced western-style games and modernised the marine transport between Macau and Hong Kong, bringing millions of gamblers from Hong Kong every year.
Riots broke out in 1966 during communist Cultural Revolution, when local Chinese and the Macau authority clashed, the most serious one being the so-called . It was sparked by the overreaction of some Portuguese officials to what was a regular minor dispute concerning building permits. The riots caused 8 deaths and the end was a total climbdown by the Portuguese Government, which signed two agreements, one with Macau's Chinese community, and the other with mainland China. The latter committed the Government to compensate local Chinese community leaders with as much as 2 million
and to prohibit all Kuomintang activities in Macau. This move ended the conflict, and relations between the government and the leftist organisations remained largely peaceful. This success in Macau encouraged leftists in Hong Kong to "do the same", leading to riots by leftists in Hong Kong in 1967. A Portuguese proposal to return the province to China was declined by China.
Also in 1966, the Church of our Lady of Sorrows on Coloane opened up.
In 1968, the
linking Taipa island and Coloane island was opened up.
In 1974, following the anti-colonialist , Portugal relinquished all claims over Macau and proposed to return Macau over to Chinese sovereignty.
In 1990, the
was founded in Coloane.
In 1994, the
was completed, the second bridge connecting Macau and Taipa.
In November 1995, the
got inaugurated. Before then the territory only had 2 temporary airports for small aeroplanes, in addition to several permanent heliports.
In 1997, the
was completed in Taipa.
Main article:
Portugal and the People's Republic of China established diplomatic relations on 8 February 1979, and Beijing acknowledged Macau as "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration." A year later, Gen.
became the first governor of Macau to pay an official visit to Beijing.
The visit underscored both parties' interest in finding a mutually agreeable solution to Macau's status. A joint communiqué signed 20 May 1986 called for negotiations on the Macau question, and four rounds of talks followed between 30 June 1986 and 26 March 1987. The
was signed in Beijing on 13 April 1987, setting the stage for the return of Macau to full Chinese sovereignty as a
on 20 December 1999.
enters Macau for the first time
After four rounds of talks, "the Joint Declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of Portugal on the Question of Macau" was officially signed in April 1987. The two sides exchanged instruments of
on 15 January 1988 and the Joint Declaration entered into force. During the transitional period between the date of the entry into force of the Joint Declaration and 19 December 1999 the Portuguese government was responsible for the administration of Macau.
The , was adopted by the
(NPC) on 31 March 1993 as the constitutional law for Macau, taking effect on 20 December 1999.
The PRC has promised that, under its "" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practised in Macau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defence affairs until at least 2049, fifty years after the handover.
Thus the history of
ended where it began. Although offered control of Macau in the 1970s, the Chinese deemed the time "not yet ripe"[] and preferred to wait until December 1999—the very end of the , two years after the —to close this chapter of history.
In 2002, the Macau government ended the
and 3 (later 6) casino operating concessions (and subconcessions) were granted to
(SJM, an 80% owned subsidiary of STDM), , , , the partnership of
and , and the partnership of Melco and PBL, thus marking the begin of the rise of Macau as the new gambling hub in Asia.
As one of the measures to develop the gambling industry, the Cotai strip was completed after the handover to China with construction of the hotel and casino industry starting in 2004. In 2007, the first of many resorts opened, . Many other resorts followed, both in Cotai and on Macau island, providing for a major tax income stream to Macau government and a drop in overall unemployment over the years down to a mere 2% in 2013.
In 2004, the
is completed, the third bridge between Macau island and Taipa island.
In 2005, the , the principal venue for the 4th East Asian Games, is inaugurated.
Also in 2005, Macau government started a wave of social housing construction (lasting until 2013 at least), constructing over 8000 apartment units in the process.
Similar to other economies in the world, the
hit Macau leading to a stall in construction of major construction works () and a spike in unemployment.
With residential and development space being sparse, Macau government officially announced on 27 June 2009 that the
will build its new campus on
island, in a stretch directly facing the
area, south of the current border post. Along with this development, several other residential and business development projects on Hengqin are in the planning.
In 2011 to 2013 further major construction on several planned mega-resorts on the
commenced.
2014 marked the first time that the gambling revenues in Macau declined on a year-to-year basis. Starting in June 2014, gambling revenues declined for the second half of the year on a month-to-month basis (compared with 2013) causing the Macau Daily Times to announce that the "Decade of gambling expansion end(ed)".
(in Chinese). Macau Foundation 2008.
. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State 2007.
Nigel Cameron (1976). . Volume 681 of A phoenix book (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 143.   2011. envoy, had most effectively poured out his tale of woe, of deprivation at the hands of the Portuguese in M and he had backed up the tale with others concerning the reprehensible Portuguese methods in the Moluccas, making the case (quite truthfully) that European trading visits were no more than the prelude to annexation of territory. With the tiny sea power at this time available to the Chinese)
Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) (1968). . M. Nijhoff. p. 446 2011. The reception in China w this, it seems, had something to do with the complaint which the ruler of Malacca, conquered by the Portuguese in 1511, had lodged with the Chinese emperor, his suzerain.(University of Minnesota)
Ernest S. Dodge (1976). . Volume 7 of Europe and the World in Age of Expansion. U of Minnesota Press. p. 226.   2011. The inexusable behaviour of the Portuguese, combined with the ill-chosen language of the letters which Pires presented to the celestial emperor, supplemented by a warning from the Malay sultan of Bintan, persuaded the Chinese that Pires was indeed up to no good)
Kenneth Scott Latourette (1942).
(2 ed.). Macmillan. p. 313 2011. The Moslem ruler of Malacca, whom they had dispossessed, complained of them to the Chinese authorities. A Portuguese envoy, Pires, who reached Peking in 1520 was treated as a spy, was conveyed by imperial order to Canton(the University of Michigan)
John William Parry (1969). . Volume 1 of Spices. Chemical Pub. Co. p. 102 2011. Fernao Pires de Andrade reached Peking, China, in 1520, but unfortunately for that Portuguese envoy, he was treated as a spy and died in a Cantonese prison. establishing a(the University of California)
Ptak, Roderich (1992), , Mare Liberum, Revista de História dos Mares (Lisbon) (4)
. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People's Republic of China 2008.
Fung, Bong Yin (1999). Macau: a General Introduction (in Chinese). Hong Kong: Joint Publishing (H.K.) Co. Ltd.  .
Joseph Timothy Haydn (1885).
(18 ed.). p. 522 2011. MACAO (in Quang-tong, S. China) was given to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 (in return for their assistance against pirates), subject to an annual tribute, which was remitted in 1863. Here Camoens composed part of the " Lusiad."(Oxford University)
Indrani Chatterjee, Richard Maxwell Eaton (2006). Indrani Chatterjee, Richard Maxwell Eaton, ed.
(illustrated ed.). Indiana University Press. p. 238.   2011. Portuguese,""The Portuguese beat us off from Macao with their slaves."10 The same year as the Dutch ... an English witness recorded that the Portuguese defense was conducted primarily by their African slaves,who threw
. Taylor & Francis. 1996. p. 544.   2011. A miscellaneous assemblage of Portuguese soldiers, citizens, African slaves, friars, and Jesuits managed to withstand the attack. Following this defeat, the Dutch made no further attempts to take Macau, although they continued to harass
Christina Miu Bing Cheng (1999).
(illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 159.   2011. invaded Macau on 24 June 1622 but was defeated by a handful of Portuguese priests, citizens and African slaves
Steven Bailey (2007).
(illustrated ed.). ThingsAsian Press. p. 15.   2011. On June 24, 1622, a Dutch fleet under Captain Kornelis Reyerszoon assembled a landing force of some 800 armed sailors, a number thought more than sufficient to overpower Macau's relatively weak garrison. Macau's future as a Dutch colony seemed all but assured, since the city's ... still remained under construction and its defenders numbered only about 60 soldiers and 90 civilians, who ranged from Jesuit priests to African slaves
Indiana UniversityCharles Ralph Boxer (1948). . M. Nijhoff. p. 224 2012. Some of these wants and strays found themselves in queer company and places in the course of their enforced sojourn in the Portuguese colonial empire. The Ming Shih's complain that the Portuguese kidnapped not only coolie or Tanka children but even those of educated persons, to their piratical lairs at Lintin and Castle Peak, is borne out by the fate of Barros' Chinese slave already
Jonathan Chaves (1993).
(llustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 53.   2012. Wu Li, like Bocarro, noted the presence in Macao both of black slaves and of non-Han Chinese such as the Tanka boat people, and in the third poem of his sequence he combines references to these two groups: Yellow sand, whitewashed houses: her willows at the gates like sedge, still not sparse in autumn.
Jonathan Chaves (1993).
(llustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 54.   2012. Midnight's when the Tanka come and ma fasting kitchens for noonday meals have plenty of fresh fish ... The second half of the poem unfolds a scene of Tanka boat people bringing in fish to supply the needs of fasting Christians.
Jonathan Chaves (1993).
(llustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 141.   2012. 3 Yellow sand, whitewashed houses: her willows at the gates like sedge, still not sparse in autumn. Midnight's when the Tanka come and ma fasting kitchens for noonday meals have plenty of fresh fish.
Jonathan Chaves (1993).
(llustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 53.   2012. The residents Wu Li strives to reassure (in the third line of this poem) consisted — at least in 1635 when Antonio Bocarro, Chronicler-in-Chief of the State of India, wrote his detailed account of Macao (without actually having visited there) — of some 850 Portuguese families with "on the average about six slaves capable of bearing arms, amongst whom the majority and the best are negroes and such like," as well as a like number of "native families, including Chinese Christians ... who form the majority [of the non-Portuguese residents] and other nations, all Christians." 146 (Bocarro may have been mistaken in declaring that all the Chinese in Macao were Christians.)
Porter, Jonathan. Macau, the Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present. Westview Press, 1999.
. Macau Tourist Guide. Archived from
on May 20, .
, Fidalgos in the Far East, . Martinus Nijhoff (The Hague), 1948. p. 4
Boxer, p. 99
 "". . New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
(in Chinese). Macau Foundation. Archived from
on 24 December .
As published on IACM Macau government publication "Footprints of Painter Gao Jianhu"
Paulo Barbosa (2 May 2012).
three cases of cannibalism among the Chinese as stated in a telegram from the Governor to Lisbon in the spring of 1942
p.116 Garrett, Richard J. The Defences of Macau: Forts, Ships and Weapons Over 450 Years Hong Kong University Press, 01/02/2010
Wordie, Jason (2013). "1. Portas do Cerco". Macao - People and Places, Past and Present. Hong Kong: Angsana Limited. pp. 6–7.  .
. The West Australian (Perth: Perth, W. A. : A. Davidson, for the West Australian, 1879). 31 July .
Grand Prix Macau.
Chan, S. S. (2000). The Macau Economy. Macau: Publications Centre, University of Macau.  .
As displayed on the official timeline of Macau at the Museum of History in Taipa
Max-Leonhard von Schaper (3 November 2013).
Insituto de Habitacao.
Hsin Chong Construction Group Ltd. (12 April 2012).
Max-Leonhard von Schaper (7 November 2013).
Kelvin Chan, AP (Macau Daily Times) (2 May 2012).
Macau Daily Times (). .
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2 Or 1600.
3 A factory () and small temporary coastal bases.
from 1879.
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1 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, East Timor's independence was fully recognized.
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Gunn, Geoffrey C. Encountering Macau, A Portuguese City-State on the Periphery of China,
(Boulder: Westview Press, 1996),
Porter, Jonathan. "'The Past Is Present': The Construction of Macau's Historical Legacy," History and Memory Volume 21, Number 1, Spring/Summer 2009 pp. 63–100
Porter, Jonathan. Macau: The Imaginary City, Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996)
Schellinger and Salkin, ed. (1996). "Macau". International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. UK: Routledge.  .
Souza, George Bryan. The Survival of Empire: Portuguese Trade and Society in China and the South China Sea,
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986)
: A Macao Narrative
Shipp, Steve: Macau, China: A Political History of the Portuguese Colony's Transition to Chinese Rule
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