急求一篇土木工程的英文文献,大概ora 200000字左右

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急求一篇5000字左右的英文文献(最好是经济或贸易相关)并附上中文翻译,
急求一篇5000字左右的英文文献(最好是经济或贸易相关)并附上中文翻译,
楼上的英文文献根本就是google下面的华文文献,不顺的.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B2%BF%E6%98%93Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods, services, or both. Trade is also called commerce. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade.Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialisation and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, trading for other products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have a comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade at market prices between locations benefits both locations.Trading can also refer to the action performed by traders and other market agents in the financial markets.Trade originated with the start of communication in prehistoric times. Trading was the main facility of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and services from each other before the innovation of the modern day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago.[1]Trade is believed to have taken place throughout much of recorded human history. There is evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint during the stone age. Materials used for creating jewelry were traded with Egypt since 3000 BC. Long-range trade routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BC, when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. The Phoenicians were noted sea traders, traveling across the Mediterranean Sea, and as far north as Britain for sources of tin to manufacture bronze. For this purpose they established trade colonies the Greeks called emporia. From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to flourish and endure. The Roman empire produced a stable and secure transportation network that enabled the shipment of trade goods without fear of significant piracy.The fall of the Roman empire, and the succeeding Dark Ages brought instability to Western Europe and a near collapse of the trade network. Nevertheless some trade did occur. For instance, Radhanites were a medieval guild or group (the precise meaning of the word is lost to history) of Jewish merchants who traded between the Christians in Europe and the Muslims of the Near East.The Sogdians dominated the East-West trade route known as the Silk Road after the 4th century AD up to the 8th century AD, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centeres in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia.From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings and Varangians traded as they sailed from and to Scandinavia. Vikings sailed to Western Europe, while Varangians to Russia. The Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading cities that maintained a trade monopoly over most of Northern Europe and the Baltic, between the 13th and 17th centuries.Vasco da Gama restarted the European Spice trade in 1498. Prior to his sailing around Africa, the flow of spice into Europe was controlled by Islamic powers, especially Egypt. The spice trade was of major economic importance and helped spur the Age of Exploration. Spices brought to Europe from distant lands were some of the most valuable commodities for their weight, sometimes rivaling gold.In the 16th century, Holland was the centre of free trade, imposing no exchange controls, and advocating the free movement of goods. Trade in the East Indies was dominated by Portugal in the 16th century, the Netherlands in the 17th century, and the British in the 18th century. The Spanish Empire developed regular trade links across both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.In 1776, Adam Smith published the paper An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. It criticised Mercantilism, and argued that economic specialisation could benefit nations just as much as firms. Since the division of labour was restricted by the size of the market, he said that countries having access to larger markets would be able to divide labour more efficiently and thereby become more productive. Smith said that he considered all rationalisations of import and export controls "dupery", which hurt the trading nation at the expense of specific industries.In 1799, the Dutch East India Company, formerly the world's largest company, became bankrupt, partly due to the rise of competitive free trade.In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens showed that free trade would benefit the industrially weak as well as the strong, in the famous theory of comparative advantage. In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered the most counterintuitive in economics:When an inefficient producer sends the merchandise it produces best to a country able to produce it more efficiently, both countries benefit. The ascendancy of free trade was primarily based on national advantage in the mid 19th century. That is, the calculation made was whether it was in any particular country's self-interest to open its borders to imports.John Stuart Mill proved that a country with monopoly pricing power on the international market could manipulate the terms of trade through maintaining tariffs, and that the response to this might be reciprocity in trade policy. Ricardo and others had suggested this earlier. This was taken as evidence against the universal doctrine of free trade, as it was believed that more of the economic surplus of trade would accrue to a country following reciprocal, rather than completely free, trade policies. This was followed within a few years by the infant industry scenario developed by Mill promoting the theory that government had the "duty" to protect young industries, although only for a time necessary for them to develop full capacity. This became the policy in many countries attempting to industrialise and out-compete English exporters. Milton Freidman later continued this vein of thought, showing that in a few circumstances tariffs might be beneficial but never for the world at large.[2]The Great Depression was a major economic recession that ran from 1929 to the late 1930s. During this period, there was a great drop in trade and other economic indicators.The lack of free trade was considered by many as a principal cause of the depression. Only during the World War II the recession ended in United States. Also during the war, in 1944, 44 countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement, intended to prevent national trade barriers, to avoid depressions. It set up rules and institutions to regulate the international political economy: the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (later divided into the World Bank and Bank for International Settlements). These organisations became operational in 1946 after enough countries ratified the agreement. In 1947, 23 countries agreed to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to promote free trade.Free trade advanced further in the late 20th century and early 2000s:1992 European Union lifted barriers to internal trade in goods and labour. January 1, 1994 NAFTA took effect 1994 The GATT Marrakech Agreement specified formation of the WTO. January 1, 1995 World Trade Organization was created to facilitate free trade, by mandating mutual most favoured nation trading status between all signatories. EC was transformed into the European Union, which accomplished the Economic and Monnetary Union (EMU) in 2002, through introducing the Euro , and creating this way a real single market between 13 member states as of January 1, 2007. 2005, the Central American Free Trade A It includes the United States and the Dominican Republic. [edit] Development of moneyMain article: History of money The first instances of money were objects with intrinsic value. This is called commodity money and includes any commonly-available commodity that historical examples include pigs, rare seashells, whale's teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, bread was used as an early form of money. In Mexico under Montezuma cocoa beans were money.Currency was introduced as a standardised money to facilitate a wider exchange of goods and services. This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years.Numismatists have examples of coins from the earliest large-scale societies, although these were initially unmarked lumps of precious metal.[3]Ancient Sparta minted coins from iron to discourage its citizens from engaging in foreign trade.The system of commodity money in many instances evolved into a system of representative money. In this system, the material that constitutes the money itself had very little intrinsic value, but nonetheless such money achieves significant market value through scarcity or controlled supply.[edit] Current trends[edit] Doha roundsMain article: Doha roundThe Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations aims to lower barriers to trade around the world, with a focus on making trade fairer for developing countries. Talks have been hung over a divide between the rich, developed countries, and the major developing countries (represented by the G20). Agricultural subsidies are the most significant issue upon which agreement has been hardest to negotiate. By contrast, there was much agreement on trade facilitation and capacity building.The Doha round began in Doha, Qatar, and negotiations have subsequently continued in: Cancún, M Geneva, S and Paris, France and Hong Kong.[edit] ChinaBeginning around 1978, the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) began an experiment in economic reform. Previously the Communist nation had employed the Soviet-style centrally planned economy, with limited results. They would now utilise a more market-oriented economy, particularly in the so-called Special Economic Zones located in the Guangdong, Fujian, and Hainan. This reform has been spectacularly successful. By 2004, the GDP of the nation has quadrupled since 1978 and foreign trade exceeded USD 1 trillion. As of 2005, China had become the 3rd largest exporter behind Germany and the United States. This occurred in spite of the backlash from the shootings following Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The PRC maintains a USD 29 billion trade surplus, and is rapidly becoming a leader in industrial manufacturing.In 1991 the PRC joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation group, a trade-promotion forum. More recently, in 2001 they also joined the World Trade Organization.International trade is the exchange of goods and services across national borders. In most countries, it represents a significant part of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance have increased in recent centuries, mainly because of Industrialisation, advanced transportation, globalisation, multinational corporations, and outsourcing. In fact, it is probably the increasing prevalence of international trade that is usually meant by the term "globalisation".Empirical evidence for the success of trade can be seen in the contrast between countries such as South Korea, which adopted a policy of export-oriented industrialisation, and India, which historically had a more closed policy (although it has begun to open its economy, as of 2005). South Korea has done much better by economic criteria than India over the past fifty years, though its success also has to do with effective state institutions.Trade sanctions against a specific country are sometimes imposed, in order to punish that country for some action. An embargo, a severe form of externally imposed isolation, is a blockade of all trade by one country on another. For example, the United States has had an embargo against Cuba for over 40 years.Although there are usually few trade restrictions within countries, international trade is usually regulated by governmental quotas and restrictions, and often taxed by tariffs. Tariffs are usually on imports, but sometimes countries may impose export tariffs or subsidies. All of these are called trade barriers. If a government removes all trade barriers, a condition of free trade exists. A government that implements a protectionist policy establishes trade barriers.The fair trade movement, also known as the trade justice movement, promotes the use of labour, environmental and social standards for the production of commodities, particularly those exported from the Third and Second Worlds to the First World.Standards may be voluntarily adhered to by importing firms, or enforced by governments through a combination of employment and commercial law. Proposed and practiced fair trade policies vary widely, ranging from the commonly adhered to prohibition of goods made using slave labour to minimum price support schemes such as those for coffee in the 1980s. Non-governmental organizations also play a role in promoting fair trade standards by serving as independent monitors of compliance with fairtrade labelling requirements.Organization of tradePatterns of organizing and administering trade include:State control - trade centrally controlled by government planning. Laws regulating Trade and establishing a framework such as trade law, tariffs, support for intellectual property, opposition to dumping. Guild control - trade controlled by private business associations holding either de facto or government-granted power to exclude new entrants. In contemporary times, the language has evolved to business and professional organizations, often controlled by academia. For example in many states, a person may not practice the professions of engineering, law, law enforcement, medicine, and teaching unless they have a college degree and, in some cases, a license. Free enterprise - trade without signific market participants engage in trade based on their own individual assessments of risk and reward, and may enter or exit a given market relatively unimpeded. Infrastructure in support of trade, such as banking, stock market, Technology in support of trade such as electronic commerce, vending machines. [edit] International organizationsEuropean Common Market GATT = General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/WTO [World Trade Organization] G8 IMF = International Monetary Fund OPEC = Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries [edit] Free trade areasFree trade organizations or free trade areas European Free Trade Association Free Trade Area of the Americas NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) Union of South American Nations [edit] United Nations umbrellaUNCTAD = United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ITC = International Trade Centre [edit] Types of tradeCommodities Staples Luxuries Slave trade International trade Arms trade Wholesaling Retailer Stock exchange Fair Trade [edit] See alsoLook up trade inWiktionary, the free dictionary.Market Segmentation Index Common market List of international trade topics Natural economy Offshore outsourcing Offshoring Public exchange Trade barrier Trade facilitation Trade route Trade statistics Trade war Trading blows Silent trade Roman commerce The Silk Route, Amber Road and other trade routes slave trade, fur trade, cod trade The rise of banking History of international trade Merchant adventurers and trading companies: British East India Company, Muscovy Company, Virginia Company, Hudson's Bay Company and others Mercantilism Industrial Revolution, Second Industrial Revolution Capitalism Innovations in transport Colonialism and neo-colonialism Commodities, goods and intellectual property E-commerce Globalisation Shopgrifting 贸易是自愿的货品或服务交换.贸易也被称为商业.贸易是在一个巿场裏面进行的.最原始的贸易形式是以物易物,即直接交换货品或服务.现代的贸易则普遍以一种媒介作讨价还价,如金钱.金钱的出现(以及后来的信用证、钞票以及非实体金钱)大大简化和促进了贸易.两个贸易者之间的贸易称为双边贸易,多於两个贸易者的则称为多边贸易. 贸易出现的原因众多.由於劳动力的专门化,个体只会从事一个小范畴的工作,所以他们必须以贸易来获取生活的日用品.两个地区之间的贸易往往是因为一地在生产某产品上有相对优势,如有较佳的技术、较易获取原材料等.国际贸易 公平贸易 反不正当竞争 国内贸易 贸易法 WTO 关税 双边贸易 多边贸易 走私
英文.1, 2003 China's foreign trade and exports in 2002 to continue the rapid growth momentum, export growth will fall in compensatory (1) 2003 the world economy and international trade and investme...急求一篇工业设计类的英文文献,满百度都能搜到的就算了,3000字左右_百度知道
急求一篇工业设计类的英文文献,满百度都能搜到的就算了,3000字左右
或者跟陶瓷这一材质有关的英文文献也行,最好带英文翻译,可以追加悬赏分,谢谢
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工业设计类的英文文献我只对个人发送。
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者跟陶瓷这一材质有关的英文文献 对待好的确
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求一篇建筑的顶岗实习总结,200字左右就行了!!!!
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土木工程实习日记根据学校安排我于2004 年6 月25 日到武汉第四建筑公司武汉国企项目部进行建筑施工实习,这是一个让我了解施工现场的好机会,让我更深一步的了解理论与实际的差别。 一、工程简介 本工程是武汉市东湖高兴国企投资公司开发的单身公寓楼,承建单位是武汉第四建筑公司,分别是五号和六号楼及高尔夫球健身楼,地基由哮感第四桩基公司承建。由北京威斯顿设计院设计。采用框架剪力墙结构,柱子为异性柱。面积为13000 平方米,由3 栋楼组成的商住楼,现浇钢筋混泥土六层框剪结构。 二、实习内容 1:木工 1)模板的种类及制作方法; 2)各种结构模板安装的质量标准; 3)现浇结构模板安装的质量标准; 4)现浇结构模板拆除的时间和顺序; 5)模板拆除的注意事项; 6)模板的清理,堆放和维修的方法及要求; 2:钢筋工 1)钢筋的种类及外形特征; 2)钢筋的焊接方法及质量要求; 3)钢筋冷加工的方法及工艺; 4)钢筋的绑扎的方法及质量要求; 5)钢筋绑扎的搭接长度要求; 6)各种构件保护层厚度的控制方法; 7)掌握隐蔽工程记录方法及主要内容; 3:混泥土工 1)搅拌机的种类,规格,拌和的原理; 2)震动器的种类,适用范围; 3)施工配合比的换算及标志牌的内容; 4)施工缝的留设及其处理方法; 5)混泥土的养护方法及要求; 6)混泥土表面缺陷产生原因及预防处理方法; 7)混泥土工程的质量检查内容; 三...
追问:是要一篇200字的顶岗实习总结,不是周记,就是像自我鉴定那样。。。。
补充:土木工程实习日记根据学校安排我于2004 年6 月25 日到武汉第四建筑公司武汉国企项目部进行建筑施工实习,这是一个让我了解施工现场的好机会,让我更深一步的了解理论与实际的差别。 一、工程简介 本工程是武汉市东湖高兴国企投资公司开发的单身公寓楼,承建单位是武汉第四建筑公司,分别是五号和六号楼及高尔夫球健身楼,地基由哮感第四桩基公司承建。由北京威斯顿设计院设计。采用框架剪力墙结构,柱子为异性柱。面积为13000 平方米,由3 栋楼组成的商住楼,现浇钢筋混泥土六层框剪结构。 二、实习内容 1:木工 1)模板的种类及制作方法; 2)各种结构模板安装的质量标准; 3)现浇结构模板安装的质量标准; 4)现浇结构模板拆除的时间和顺序; 5)模板拆除的注意事项; 6)模板的清理,堆放和维修的方法及要求; 2:钢筋工 1)钢筋的种类及外形特征; 2)钢筋的焊接方法及质量要求; 3)钢筋冷加工的方法及工艺; 4)钢筋的绑扎的方法及质量要求; 5)钢筋绑扎的搭接长度要求; 6)各种构件保护层厚度的控制方法; 7)掌握隐蔽工程记录方法及主要内容; 3:混泥土工 1)搅拌机的种类,规格,拌和的原理; 2)震动器的种类,适用范围; 3)施工配合比的换算及标志牌的内容; 4)施工缝的留设及其处理方法; 5)混泥土的养护方法及要求; 6)混泥土表面缺陷产生原因及预防处理方法; 7)混泥土工程的质量检查内容; 三收获与体会 首先说实习对我来说是个既熟悉又陌生的字眼,因为我十几年的学生生涯也经历过很多的实习,但这次却又是那么的与众不同。他将全面检验我各方面的能力:学习、生活、心理、身体、思想等等。就像是一块试金石,检验我能否将所学理论知识用到实践中去。关系到我将来能否顺利的立足于这个充满挑战的社会,也是我建立信心的关键所在,所以,我对它的投入也是百分之百的!紧张的一个月的实习生活结束了,在这一个多月里我还是有不少的收获。实习结束后有必要好好总结一下。首先,通过一个多月的实习,通过实践,使我学到了很多实践知识。所谓实践是检验真理的唯一标准,通过旁站,使我近距离的观察了整个房屋的建造过程,学到了很多很适用的具体的施工知识,这些知识往往是我在学校很少接触,很少注意的,但又是十分重要基础的知识。混泥土的裂缝原因及处里这是一个很复杂的问题,那我就说说我的见解吧: 1 裂缝的原因混凝土中产生裂缝有多种原因,主要是温度和湿度的变化,混凝土的脆性和不均匀性,以及结构不合理,原材料不合格(如碱骨料反应),模板变形,基础不均匀沉降等。混凝土硬化期间水泥放出大量水化热,内部温度不断上升,在表面引起拉应力。后期在降温过程中,由于受到基础或老混凝上的约束,又会在混凝土内部出现拉应力。气温的降低也会在混凝土表面引起很大的拉应力。当这些拉应力超出混凝土的抗裂能力时,即会出现裂缝。许多混凝土的内部湿度变化很小或变化较慢,但表面湿度可能变化较大或发生剧烈变化。如养护不周、时干时湿,表面干缩形变受到内部混凝土的约束,也往往导致裂缝。混凝土是一种脆性材料,抗拉强度是抗压强度的1/10 左右,短期加荷时的极限拉伸变形只有(0.6~1.0)×104, 长期加荷时的极限位伸变形也只有(1.2~2.0)×104.由于原材料不均匀,水灰比不稳定,及运输和浇筑过程中的离析现象,在同一块混凝土中其抗拉强度又是不均匀的,存在着许多抗拉能力很低,易于出现裂缝的薄弱部位。在钢筋混凝土中,拉应力主要是由钢筋承担,混凝土只是承受压应力。在素混凝土内或钢筋混凝上的边缘部位如果结构内出现了拉应力,则须依靠混凝土自身承担。一般设计中均要求不出现拉应力或者只出现很小的拉应力。但是在施工中混凝土由最高温度冷却到运转时期的稳定温度,往往在混凝土内部引起相当大的拉应力。有时温度应力可超过其它外荷载所引起的应力,因此掌握温度应力的变化规律对于进行合理的结构设计和施工极为重要。2 温度应力的分析根据温度应力的形成过程可分为以下三个阶段:(1)早期:自浇筑混凝土开始至水泥放热基本结束,一般约30 天。这个阶段的两个特征,一是水泥放出大量的水化热,二是混凝上弹性模量的急剧变化。由于弹性模量的变化,这一时期在混凝土内形成残余应力。(2)中期:自水泥放热作用基本结束时起至混凝土冷却到稳定温度时止,这个时期中,温度应力主要是由于混凝土的冷却及外界气温变化所引起,这些应力与早期形成的残余应力相叠加,在此期间混凝上的弹性模量变化不大。(3)晚期:混凝土完全冷却以后的运转时期。温度应力主要是外界气温变化所引起,这些应力与前两种的残余应力相迭加 根据温度应力引起的原因可分为两类:(1)自生应力:边界上没有任何约束或完全静止的结构,如果内部温度是非线性分布的,由于结构本身互相约束而出现的温度应力。例如,桥梁墩身,结构尺寸相对较大,混凝土冷却时表面温度低,内部温度高,在表面出现拉应力,在中间出现压应力。(2)约束应力:结构的全部或部分边界受到外界的约束,不能自由变形而引起的应力。如箱梁顶板混凝土和护栏混凝土。这两种温度应力往往和混凝土的干缩所引起的应力共同作用。要想根据已知的温度准确分析出温度应力的分布、大小是一项比较复杂的工作。在大多数情况下,需要依靠模型试验或数值计算。混凝土的徐变使温度应力有相当大的松驰,计算温度应力时,必须考虑徐变的影响,具体计算这里就不再细述。 3 温度的控制和防止裂缝的措施为了防止裂缝,减轻温度应力可以从控制温度和改善约束条件两个方面着手。控制温度的措施如下:(1)采用改善骨料级配,用干硬性混凝土,掺混合料,加引气剂或塑化剂等措施以减少混凝土中的水泥用量;(2)拌合混凝土时加水或用水将碎石冷却以降低混凝土的浇筑温度;(3)热天浇筑混凝土时减少浇筑厚度,利用浇筑层面散热;(4)在混凝土中埋设水管,通入冷水降温;(5)规定合理的拆模时间,气温骤降时进行表面保温,以免混凝土表面发生急剧的温度梯度;(6)施工中长期暴露的混凝土浇筑块表面或薄壁结构,在寒冷季节采取保温措施;改善约束条件的措施是:(1)合理地分缝分块;(2)避免基础过大起伏;(3)合理的安排施工工序,避免过大的高差和侧面长期暴露;此外,改善混凝土的性能,提高抗裂能力,加强养护,防止表面干缩,特别是保证混凝土的质量对防止裂缝是十分重要,应特别注意避免产生贯穿裂缝,出现后要恢复其结构的整体性是十分困难的,因此施工中应以预防贯穿性裂缝的发生为主。在混凝土的施工中,为了提高模板的周转率,往往要求新浇筑的混凝土尽早拆模。当混凝土温度高于气温时应适当考虑拆模时间,以免引起混凝土表面的早期裂缝。新浇筑早期拆模,在表面引起很大的拉应力,出现“温度冲击”现象。 在混凝土浇筑初期,由于水化热的散发,表面引起相当大的拉应力,此时表面温度亦较气温为高,此时拆除模板,表面温度骤降,必然引起温度梯度,从而在表面附加一拉应力,与水化热应力迭加,再加上混凝土干缩,表面的拉应力达到很大的数值,就有导致裂缝的危险,但如果在拆除模板后及时在表面覆盖一轻型保温材料,如泡沫海棉等,对于防止混凝土表面产生过大的拉应力,具有显著的效果。加筋对大体积混凝土的温度应力影响很小,因为大体积混凝土的含筋率极低。只是对一般钢筋混凝土有影响。在温度不太高及应力低于屈服极限的条件下,钢的各项性能是稳定的,而与应力状态、时间及温度无关。钢的线胀系数与混凝土线胀系数相差很小,在温度变化时两者间只发生很小的内应力。由于钢的弹性模量为混凝土弹性模量的7~15 倍,当内混凝土应力达到抗拉强度而开裂时,钢筋的应力将不超过100~200kg/cm2..因此,在混凝土中想要利用钢筋来防止细小裂缝的出现很困难。但加筋后结构内的裂缝一般就变得数目多、间距小、宽度与深度较小了。而且如果钢筋的直径细而间距密时,对提高混凝土抗裂性的效果较好。混凝土和钢筋混凝土结构的表面常常会发生细而浅的裂缝,其中大多数属于干缩裂缝。虽然这种裂缝一般都较浅,但它对结构的强度和耐久性仍有一定的影响。为保证混凝土工程质量,防止开裂,提高混凝土的耐久性,正确使用外加剂也是减少开裂的措施之一。例如使用减水防裂剂,笔者在实践中总结出其主要作用为:(1)混凝土中存在大量毛细孔道,水蒸发后毛细管中产生毛细管张力,使混凝土干缩变形。增大毛细孔径可降低毛细管表面张力,但会使混凝土强度降低。这个表面张力理论早在六十年代就已被国际上所确认。(2)水灰比是影响混凝土收缩的重要因素,使用减水防裂剂可使混凝土用水量减少25%。(3)水泥用量也是混凝土收缩率的重要因素,掺加减水防裂剂的混凝土在保持混凝土强度的条件下可减少15%的水泥用量,其体积用增加骨料用量来补充。(4)减水防裂剂可以改善水泥浆的稠度,减少混凝土泌水,减少沉缩变形。(5)提高水泥浆与骨料的粘结力,提高的混凝土抗裂性能。(6)混凝土在收缩时受到约束产生拉应力,当拉应力大于混凝土抗拉强度时裂缝就会产生。减水防裂剂可有效的提高的混凝土抗拉强度,大幅提高混凝土的抗裂性能。(7)掺加外加剂可使混凝土密实性好,可有效地提高混凝土的抗碳化性,减少碳化收缩。(8)掺减水防裂剂后混凝土缓凝时间适当,在有效防止水泥迅速水化放热基础上,避免因水泥长期不凝而带来的塑性收缩增加。(9)掺外加剂混凝土和易性好,表面易摸平,形成微膜,减少水分蒸发,减少干燥收缩.许多外加剂都有缓凝、增加和易性、改善塑性的功能,我们在工程实践中应多进行这方面的实验对比和研究,比单纯的靠改善外部条件,可能会更加简捷、经济。 4 混凝土的早期养护实践证明,混凝土常见的裂缝,大多数是不同深度的表面裂缝,其主要原因是温度梯度造成寒冷地区的温度骤降也容易形成裂缝。因此说混凝土的保温对防止表面早期裂缝尤其重要。从温度应力观点出发,保温应达到下述要求:1)防止混凝土内外温度差及混凝土表面梯度,防止表面裂缝。2)防止混凝土超冷,应该尽量设法使混凝土的施工期最低温度不低于混凝土使用期的稳定温度。3)防止老混凝土过冷,以减少新老混凝土间的约束。混凝土的早期养护,主要目的在于保持适宜的温湿条件,以达到两个方面的效果,一方面使混凝土免受不利温、湿度变形的侵袭,防止有害的冷缩和干缩。一方面使水泥水化作用顺利进行,以期达到设计的强度和抗裂能力。适宜的温湿度条件是相互关联的。混凝上的保温措施常常也有保湿的效果。从理论上分析,新浇混凝土中所含水分完全可以满足水泥水化的要求而有余。但由于蒸发等原因常引起水分损失,从而推迟或防碍水泥的水化,表面混凝土最容易而且直接受到这种不利影响。因此混凝土浇筑后的最初几天是养护的关键时期,在施工中应切实重视起来。所以在施工时我们要谨慎的处理这些事件,根据不同情况不同处理。 这些问题都是在施工事要注意的,在施工时采用何种水泥,用量都是要注意的,还有混泥土的早期保养。 :
模板设计:(一)施工准备 1.模板安装前的基本工作: 1)放线:首先引测建筑的边柱,墙轴线,平以该轴线为起点,引出各条轴线。模板放线时,根据施工图用墨线弹出模板的中心线和边线,墙模板要弹出模板的边线和外侧控制线,以便于模板安装和校正。 2)用水准仪把建筑水平标高根据实际标高的要求,直接引测到模板安装位置。 3)模板垫底部位应预先找平,杂物清理干净,以保证模板位置正确,防止模板底部漏浆或混泥土成形后烂根。 4)工长事先确定模板的组装设计方案,向施工班组进行技术,质量,安全交底。 5)模板应图刷脱模剂。还有好多注意事项,我在这就不列举了。 我坚信通过这一段时间的实习,所获得的实践经验对我终身受益,在我毕业后的实际工作中将不断的得到验证,我会不断的理解和体会实习中所学到的知识,在未来的工作中我将把我所学到的理论知识和实践经验不断的应用到实际工作来,充分展示自我的个人价值和人生价值。为实现自我的理想和光明的前程努力。 土木实习日记22008 年09 月21 日 星期日 16:309 月4 日 星期六 晴 今天一早,李工便带我到施工现场学习。在现场已经拆了模的柱前,刘工让我指出该柱的缺点,我看了一会也没有发现问题。刘工却指出三点问题:首先,从外观看由于柱是分两次浇筑完成的,而且,第二次支模板不够准确,使柱上部分稍微小于下柱,对于没有经验的人来说,是查觉不到的。但对于有经验丰富的人来说,一眼就能发现问题的所在。其次,柱子在第二次浇筑砼的时候,施工缝未做好,有漏浆现象,造成了施工缝处的烂根现象,虽然,后来又在该处抹灰,并且,对结构不产生影响,但是,在评“长城杯鲁班奖”时还是不允许的,且不符合规范要求。 接下来,我又学习了关于梁的模板中一些我们未学到的问题。首先,在支梁模板时,应该在模板的内侧每隔一段距离撑一根钢筋,目的是为了防止在梁侧支撑顶紧时和对柱螺栓的作用。使模板的内侧倒塌。同时,每隔一段距离要设置对柱的螺栓,将其设在梁侧支撑及两侧各两根相接近的钢筋固定,用于保持模板之间的设计厚度,并承受砼传来的侧面压力和水平荷载,使模板不致变形。 9 月5 日 星期日 晴 今天又是一个大晴天,一早来到工地,工人们已经开始忙碌了,底模和一边侧模已经支好了。钢筋的绑扎工作正在紧锣密鼓的进行。 钢筋的绑扎顺序为:先将架立筋或上层受力筋两端搭在支架或可支撑物上,而后在套上箍筋,并将上层钢筋和箍筋用铁丝绑扎在一起。最后,再将下层受力筋穿入箍套中,与箍筋绑扎在一起。若存在抗扭钢筋,除应在箍筋腰部及合适部位与钢筋绑扎牢固,还要在梁截面上相同部位的钢筋上加拉结筋,协同腰筋抗扭。 钢筋的安装绑扎,应与模板相配合,柱筋的安装一般在柱模版安装前进行,而梁的施工顺序正好相反。一般是先安梁底模,在安装梁筋,当梁高较大时,可先留下一面侧模不安,待钢筋绑扎完毕,在之另一面侧模,以方便施工。楼板的模板安装好后既可安装板筋,其应在下架设置支撑,使上下层筋间,保持相应的距离,且防止被踩踏。 9 月6 日 星期一 晴 今天,我的工作是与预算员一起计算5 号楼的梁柱墙中钢筋的接头个数。在本项工程中大于圆20 的钢筋,均采用机械连接总得套管连接,所以在作预算时需统计在该工程中梁柱及剪力墙中的受力钢筋的接头数量从而求出需要多少个套管。 我算的是一层顶板梁的钢筋接头数。首先,要根据平面绘图法绘制的平面图中找出每根梁相应的跨度及其总长,又因为每根钢筋的长度为12 米,所以用每根钢筋的总长除以12 既可得所需的钢筋段数。之后,要根据钢筋数进行钢筋的排布。 最后,我认为这项工作包括整个预算工作并不是很复杂,但工作量大而且很烦琐,所以要当好预算员不仅要有丰富的知识,还要有认真负责的态度。 9 月7 日 星期二 晴 今天到工地时,侧模已经支好了。由于先前已经支好了底模和一边的侧模,在绑扎好梁筋与板筋后,才可将另一边的侧模支上,且梁侧模应架在马凳上,马凳高度为板厚。 李工说马凳看似简单但要考虑一些因素;如选材方面,要求选用的钢筋要有一定钢度,并尽可能运用废料。在尺寸方面要根据所需的高度,在该部位中需约等于板的厚度。 地下室的地面的砼浇筑完毕后,地面应抹平,强度不是很高时,应先用木抹子搓平,当用手按压时只有淡淡的手指印,既可用铁抹子搓平抹光。 9 月8 日 星期三 阴有雨 由于天气的原因,今天只能在会议室里看图纸。这时实验员杨工回来了,他给我讲解了钢筋的检验与钢筋接头的工艺检验。钢筋的检验首先要检查钢筋的标牌号及质量证明书;其次要做外观检查,从每批钢筋中抽取 5% ,检查其表面不得有裂纹、创伤和叠层,钢筋表面的凸块不得超过横肋的高度,缺陷的深度和高度不得大于所在部位的允许和偏差,钢筋每一米弯曲度不应大于四米;接下来力学性能试验,每批若小于60 吨则从中抽取2 根,每根截取两段,分别做拉伸和冷弯试验。在截取试件时应除去钢筋两端 100-500MM,在截取试件大于 60 吨还需在取相应的钢筋。如果一项试验结果不符合要求,则从同一批中另取双倍数量的试样做各项试验。如仍有一个试样不合格则该批钢筋为不合格,热轧钢筋在加工过程中发生脆断、焊接性能不良或机械性能显著不正常等现象,应进行化学成分分析和其它专项检验。9 月9 日 星期四 晴 今天是一个难得的晴天,不过气温也是很高的,有30 度呢!一早上就感到很热。我先领好了安全帽然后就到了6 号楼,这里正在进行模板的支护和钢筋的邦扎。模板工程和钢筋工程正在如火如茶的进行着。工人们支模的程序是先搭设脚手架,然后再已经搭好的脚手架上安装模板下的木方,然后将板放在木方上,在板下有木方的地方上敲上长铁钉,使木方和模板成为一个整体共同来承担浇筑带来的荷载。以免板自身承受重量时,由于承载力不足,发生破坏。并且支模时先支水平模后再支垂直模。我想这样做有两个原因,一是为了竖板建立工作平台,二是为了使其垂直接缝严密,使不发生漏浆现象。2005 年1 月15 日 星期六 今天,我第一天进行实习。刚刚进了施工工地,工地负责人就要我戴安全帽和穿上工作服。并且说:“在这里,你一定要记住‘安全第一’”,我点点头,保证以后服从指挥。跟着,他说了很多工地上的安全条例,我都一一的记在心里。他问了我的名字后就自我介绍说:“我叫王剑,以后你叫我王大哥就行了,我也比你大不了几岁”。 跟着,王大哥给我介绍了工程的概况。此工程是由广州高宜投资实业有限公司开发的商品住房小区,总面积为20000 平方米。分别由康宁楼,格致楼,翠华楼,紫富楼,雍庭楼组成,其中广州市花都第二建筑工程有限公司承建的是格致楼。格致楼——楼高五层,底层为商铺,框架结构。
2005 年1 月16 日 星期日 今天,王大哥给我看了施工图,还教育我看图的重要性,“看图你要了解结构的柱距、柱网尺寸;柱和梁的断面、高度和跨度;围护墙体和柱轴线之间的尺寸关系;板的厚度和结构标高等。明确柱子纵向钢筋的强度等级、规格、数量以及搭接要求;箍筋的规格、间距、和强度等级;每层柱及柱的配筋量的变化;梁的配筋要求及每层梁及梁的配筋量的变化;板的配筋要求等;了解各层所用的混凝土的强度等级以及其他特殊要求如抗渗、抗蚀、防腐等。图纸的审核主要是为防止一些图纸的矛盾对施工的影响,如建筑标高与结构之间是否矛盾,管线的安装对结构是否有影响,图纸的设计是否能够实现等。”2005 年1 月17 日 星期一 今天,在柱筋绑扎时,我记下了大概操作 o绑扎前检查下部伸上来的钢筋位置是否在放线范围内,并确定上部接插的钢筋离柱边线的距离。 ...... [参考资料] 《建筑施工》 实习日记 7 月19 日 我来到工地的时候,基础已经完工,开始支第一层屋面的模板了。徐工先对我进行了安全教育,然后带我去工地及楼上观看了施工情况和各种构造,这个工程用的基本上都是木的模板,减力墙200 厚,隔户墙300 厚,此时还有一部分工人正在绑扎钢筋.底下二层已经整好,还用 “SBS”改性防水卷材覆盖着地下室的表面屋面的钢筋往上设有一条后浇带,是为了用于解决高层主楼与低层裙房间差异沉降、钢筋混凝土收缩变形相减小温度应力等问题。
7 月20 号 昨天晚上8 点开始浇筑混凝土一直到今天,于是我今天早上很早就来看混凝土的浇筑。还没有到工地就听见搅拌车的声音,搅拌车前停放着一辆泵送混凝土车,楼上的人正在忙碌的浇筑着另一个人还在忙碌着拿着震动棒震动混凝土使其压实,浇筑混凝土是有先后的,外围是先浇筑柱子然后再浇筑梁,里面是先浇筑墙再浇筑梁
7月21 号 今天叫我跟着放线。放线是在浇筑的混凝土面上定出柱子和墙的位置,因为墙是竖直浇筑的所以他们既根据在一层墙上的标记在地面上定好经纬仪然后瞄准拿一点直接向上打二层的轴线。这些都定好后就在屋面上定墙、边柱、和梁的位置,而且在楼梯和电梯口的边缘都定二道线,最外边的一条是控制线是防止装上模板后把梁的边线挡住 7 月22 号 今天还是在刚刚浇筑好的屋面上跟着师傅们放线,同时我看到了绑钢筋的工人们用的电轧压力焊把两根柱子的钢筋结长。 7 月23 号 今天把6.7 单元的线放好后,下午我跟着他们一起去超平了,超平的作用是为了方便支模板的,一般用的是50 线超平的方法。7 月24 号 重复昨天的工作。 7 月25 号 今天要浇筑混凝土所以监理要检查隐蔽工程的验收,于是我跟着监理来检验钢筋的绑扎和型号以及股筋的个数是否合适。通过他们的检验最主要的问题是支钢筋的马凳少,底层钢筋的垫块少,这样的话要是浇铸了混凝土了就不能保证混凝土的最小保护层的厚度。有的钢筋的间距不满足有的大有的小。不过这些问题都随后就解决了。今晚要浇筑混凝土。 7 月26 号 昨天晚上8 点开始浇筑的8.9 单元的混凝土,今天上午我在8.9 单元放线,同时看到支模板的工人正在紧张的支二楼的楼梯、电梯、及柱子、墙的模板且为了把墙体两边的模板都夹紧用的是塑料套管和钢筋共同作用。但是在地下室不用这种塑料套管只用钢筋拉接固定,等浇筑完混凝土然后两边一齐截断,因为用塑料套同容易存水在地下室。7 月27 号 今天我跟着甲方去检验钢筋,发现有的钢筋并不在放线的范围里面,于是工人们就强行把钢筋扭曲放在线的里面这样就造成了钢筋的一次疲劳所以应该截断重新打孔焊接,有的预留电箱孔洞的四周没有加附加筋有的窗台梁的两边不一般高这是由于工人没有按标准标高工作的结果。 7 月28 号 下午浇筑了8.9 单元的屋面以及个别的柱子 7 月29 号 今天下雨工程没有太多进展。 7 月30 号 今天去旁听了混凝土工的职业技术培训。学习了一些较为实用的技术。7 月31 号 今天我观看了浇注二层的剪力墙了,层高为3.9 米,因为怕一次浇筑完后振倒不开所以分两层浇筑,然后用震动棒分别振实,墙与墙,墙与柱子的交接处的钢筋比较密实所以比其它部位难浇筑因为这些所以这些部位震动的次数比其他的部位多些。 8 月1 号 今天浇筑了1、3、4、5 单元的二层屋面于是我就开始在这几个屋面上放线,因为由此向上就是标准层了所以比以前的防线就容易多了因为结构比以前的清楚易懂了。 8 月2 号 学习钢筋工的职业技术培训。8 月3 号 通过昨天对钢筋工工作的学习,今天仔细观看了钢筋工人对钢筋绑扎的详细过程,并对不太清楚的地方进行了询问。 8 月4 号 今天我跟安全员去检查工地上工人们施工过程中的安全问题,经过检查,大多人还是有安全意识,但是有少数不按要求的,如不系安全带的, 在工地吸烟的,安全员对他们进行了教育批评,有的还做出了处罚。 8 月5 号 钢筋和摸板刚完成,我们去检查,检查通过后,又叫监理检查,再后是甲方代表,都通过了后,才对其下达可以进行下一工序的命令。 8 月6 号 监理人员对地下室的砌筑进行检查,经检查发现一处马牙槎不合格,还有工人的砌筑方法不正确。不符合“三一” 的规定,监利人员做了示范。 8 月7 号 下午,经过验收合格后开始浇筑混凝土,我没有鞋,不可以进入跟着现场操作,只可以在远处看工人们是怎么做的,在浇筑前,有工人对屋面和梁进行清理,并对于较干的加些水,但是不可以有积水。8 月8 号 早上八点到工地后,师傅们都已经到齐去工地了,我就找了上去,我的师傅和钢筋工长。监理正在检查摸板和钢筋连接质量,通过检查发现有一个柱子竟然有5 根钢筋连接不合格,由于是机械连接,我也不懂,就问了下,原来是由于钢筋的加工没有到位,在外漏丝数太多了,处理办法就是每个接头处用2.5m 的同级钢筋绑扎加固,由于钢筋工的工作疏忽被处罚了,这给我一个启发:要想质量有所提高,就必须严格管理。 8 月9 号 先对地面进行清理后,对柱子进行了测量,然后弹墨线,把柱子摸板的支撑线也定出来了。 8 月10 号 今天下起了雨,师傅忙着检查摸板和钢筋,经检查有一处梁的钢筋设计超过规定至少2 公分,经处理合格后,工人们才继续施工。 8 月11 号 实习最后一天,上午我正常实习下午提前从工地下来,在办公室整理了文件,桌子,把办公室打扫的干干净净,向师傅和经理们告别后,离开了实习工地。

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