云南中考语文试卷及答案(2)
百分网【中考备考】 编辑：凤梅
　　(三)阅读下面的文字，完成15-18小题。(10分)
　　奇妙的唾液
　　①唾液，俗称口水、口涎，它是口腔内各种腺体所分泌的黏稠状液体。大的唾液腺有三对：腮腺、颌下腺、舌下腺;小的有唇腺、舌腺、颊腺、腭腺等。唾液腺虽小，却是个很勤快的器官，一个成年人，一昼夜间可以分泌出毫升唾液。唾液实际上是维持人体生命活动的重要物质之一。
　　②唾液的作用很多，我们的口腔里假如没有唾液，咽不下食物是不必说的，就连嘴巴恐怕也张不开。因为我们的舌头之所以能在口腔里&运转自如&，完全是因为有唾液在里面起&润滑油&的作用。而这种&润滑油&一旦失去的话，舌头就会和上颚或者下颚的表皮粘在一起，于是我们口腔内的一整套&机械&也就只好&束之高阁&了。
　　③唾液具有抗菌和凝血的作用，所以口腔里的伤口往往比其他地方好得快。拔牙或牙龈手术 后很少发生感染，主要原因就在于唾液中的溶菌酶有杀菌的能力，可阻止口腔内细菌大量繁殖。美国科学家发现，唾液中有一种特殊的化学特质&&唾液生长因子，它能显著地缩短伤口的愈合时间，井可以止血。
　　④近年来，医学家们发现唾液对污染食物中的致癌物具有消毒作用。日本生物化学专家研究发现，唾液中有很多免疫球蛋白，对食物中的异常蛋白质有极高的凝聚力，可增强人体的防卫功能。唾液中所含的溶菌酶时强烈致癌的黄曲霉素、苯并芘、亚硝胺有很好的解毒作用。也就是说，唾液相当于一种天然防癌剂，具有令致癌物质转化为无害物质的功能。它将发霉食物中的致癌物质黄曲霉素与自己混合，再作用于动物体内细胞，使原来具有较强致癌作用的毒性物质几乎全部消失。
　　⑤古代中医说：&白玉齿边有玉泉，涓涓育我度长年。&意思是说，常咽唾液可以健康长寿。医学专家研究发现，唾液中还含有一种能使人保持年轻的激素，这种激素是由三大唾液腺之一的腮腺分泌的，被称为&腮腺激素&。它之所以能使人年轻，是因为它能强化肌肉、血管、结缔组织、骨骼及软骨、牙齿的活力，尤其能增强血管的弹性和结缔组织的活力，只要腮腺激素充盈，血管和皮下组织(疏松结缔组织)的作用就会加强，皮肤的弹性就会得到保持。唾液的特殊功能触发了化妆品制造商的灵感，他们开发出&唾淀化妆品&&&抗皱霜、洗面奶等。
　　(摘自《百科知识》，有删改)
　　15.唾液有哪些作用?(2分)
　　16.第③段划线句子使用了什么说明方法?有什么作用?(3分)
　　17.第④段&使原来具有较强致癌作用的毒性物质几乎全部消失&句中加点词&几乎&能否删去?为什么?(3分)
　　18.你还知道，大自然中有哪些奇妙的现象?请举出两例。(2分)
　　(四)阅读下面的文字，完成19-23题。(13分)
　　一碗米粉
　　徐全庆
　　天有些冷，父亲突然对我说，你陪我去一趟桂林吧。父亲越来越老了，行动也越来越不方便，已经不能独自外出了。我那时正好要去西双版纳，就说，桂林你已去过了，西双版纳还没去过，干脆和我&起去西双版纳吧 。父亲摇摇头。我又提了几个父亲没去过的地方，父亲仍然摇头，态度很坚决。
　　没办法，只好陪父亲去桂林。路上，我问，为什么非要到桂林呢?父亲说，我要去吃米粉。就为这原因?我哭笑不得。桂林米粉，我们那儿就有卖的，大老远跑去就为吃碗米粉，看来，父亲真的变成了老小孩。
　　车站的旁边就有不少卖米粉的，我说，我给你买一碗?父亲不让，带着我一家一家地找，可一次也没有坐下来。我说，随便买一碗不就行了，何必找来找去的。父亲很坚决地说，不，我要找一位姓杨的。我奇怪，他的米粉特别好吃?父亲嗯了一声，又说，我还欠他一碗米粉钱呢。
　　父亲说，那是十五年前的事了。那次他来桂林，玩得很开心，眼看 返程的时间就要到了，他匆匆赶到车站，买了返程的车票。这时，他才发现肚子咕咕地叫个不停，于是就在一家小店要了一碗米粉。也许是因为太饿了的缘故吧，那天的米粉特别好吃。可是等他付钱的时候，他愣住了，手插在衣兜里怎么也拿不出来。他的钱包丢了，他一分钱也没有了。他尴尬地站在那里，脸上立刻冒出一层汗水。店主看出他的窘态，问，没带钱?父亲低下头说，钱丢了。这样吧，你把你的地址、姓名给我，回去后我一定把钱给你寄过来。店主又打量了一下父亲，说，不用了，下次到桂林来，还来吃我的米粉，不过得给两份钱。父亲红着脸答应了。十五年了，父亲没有再去过桂林，那碗米粉在父亲的心头挥之不去。他甚至不知道那位店主叫什么，只知道他姓杨。
　　父亲和我把车站周围的小吃店找了几遍，也没有找到那住姓杨的。父亲就向人打听，终于有人告诉父亲，姓杨的店主早搬走了，搬到哪里没有人知道。失望如厚厚的阴云，蒙在父亲的脸上。他连连叹气。
　　父亲开始带着我在桂林慢慢寻找。要在那么大的桂林寻找一个不知道名字的人，谈何容易.我们找了整整两天，也没有找到。天越发冷了，再过24小时我们就要回去了，没有办法，我进了一家网吧，在网上发帖，请网友帮忙寻找那位姓杨的店主。
　　第二天中午，有人打我的手机，说他就是我们要找的人，请我和父亲去吃他的米粉。我和父亲按他说的地址找到了他。他的头发已经全白了，动作慢慢腾腾的，老态毕现。父亲还是一眼认出了他，紧走两步，上前紧紧握住他的手，说，我可找到你了，我可找到你了!语气中满是激动。
　　只是我有些疑惑，这个小店我前天来过，店主是个年轻人。也许是他的儿子吧，我想。
　　米粉端上来了，味道确实不错。父亲吃得很香，也很从容。 然后，父亲执意按照自己的标准付了钱。
　　临别时，父亲又一次握住了他的手，说，要是我还能来桂林，我还来吃你的米粉。
　　他没有说话，只是使劲握了握父亲的手。
　　返回的途中，电话响了，是那位姓杨的店主打来的。他说，我们吃米粉的那家小店并不是他的，他身体不好，几年前就收了生 意。听说我们在找他后，他特意和店主商量，临时当了一会儿店主，又给我们做了一次米粉。
　　挂上电话，我的眼中留下了两行泪水。那碗米粉的香味弥漫在我的周围，温暖着我。
　　19.联系选文语境，理解下列加点词语的含义。(2分)
　　①他尴尬地站在那里，脸上立刻冒出一层汗水。
　　②他没有说话，只是使劲握了握父亲的手。
　　20.结合文意，说说你对选文最后一段中划线句子的理解。(2分)
　　21.&收了生意&的杨店主&又给我们做了一次米粉&，你如何理解他的这一举动?(3分)
　　22.父亲是个怎样的人?请简要分析。(3分)
　　23.选文以什么为线索?在情节结构方面有什么特点?(3分)
　　四、写作(40分)
　　24.请从下面两个题目中任选一题作文。
　　(1)请以&为你而歌&为题作文。
　　(2)阅读下面的材料，选择一个角度，自拟题目，写一篇作文。
　　亚马孙河流域的热带雨林中有一种树，是那里长得最高的树。可它的生长过程却极为特别，在最初的几年里，它几乎是那里最矮的树，只有一米多高，但五六年后，却像施了魔法一样，可以一直长到四五十米的高度。原来，在最初的五六年里，这种树不是不生长，而是一直在长根部，虽然之露头一两米，但却扎根地下超过28米。
　　要求：
　　1.选择你最擅长的文体(除诗歌外)，结合你最熟悉的生活，抒发你最真挚的情感：
　　2.认真书写，力求工整、美观：
　　3.文章不得出现真实的校名、人名：
　　4.字数不少于600字。
　　云南中考语文试卷答案
　　一、语文积累与运用(本大题含1-6小题，其中1-5小题每小题2分，第6小题8分，共18分)
　　6.答案：①所谓伊人 ②隔江犹唱后庭花 ③先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐 ④持节云中，何日遣冯唐 何当共剪西窗烛，却话巴山夜雨时 ⑥离离原上草，一岁一枯荣;乱花渐欲迷人眼，浅草才能没马蹄;天街小雨润如酥，草色遥看近却无(符合题意即可)
　　二、口语交际与语文综合运用(本大题含7-9小题，共6分)
　　7.答案示例：学习时代新楷模，争做最美中学生。(符合标语形式，符合活动内容即可，2分)
　　8.答案示例：叔叔，你好!我代表我们学校的全体同学来看望你。你的英雄事迹令我们非常感动。我们要以你为榜样，好好学习，争做&最美中学生&。祝你早日康复!(有合理的称谓1分，有符合语境的内容1分。)
　　9.答案示例：要有健康乐观、积极向上的人生观;要努力学习，完成自己的学习任务：要懂得为人处世的道理，从人格修养上提升自己，做一个德智体美劳全面发展的中学生。(答出两点，言之有理即可，2分)
　　三、阅读(本大题含10-23小题，共36分)
　　(一)阅读下面这首诗，完成第10小题。(3分)
　　10.答案示例：怨：抱怨(埋怨，怨恨)(意思相近即可，1分);诗歌表达了诗人不因时光流逝而慨叹，积极乐观、不断进取的人生态虚(言之有理，意思相近即可，2分)。
　　(二)阅读下面文言文，完成11-14小题。(10分)
　　11.答案：①劳：使&&劳累(1分) ②拂：辅佐，辅弼(1分)
　　12.①答案示例：舜从田间(耕作)之中被任用。(2分)
　　②答案示例：这样以后，就知道忧愁祸患足以使人生存，安逸享乐足以使人灭亡的道理了。(2分)
　　13.答案示例：文段先从个人角度正面论证&生于忧患&，再从国家的角度反面论证&死于安乐&。(或从个人到国家，由正面到反面论证了&生于忧患，死于安乐&的道理)。(答出一点给1分，2分)
　　14.答案示例：在成长的道路上，我们会遇到许多困难和挫折，但不能灰心丧气，要迎难而上，一个人只有经历磨难，才能有所作为。只有把困难当做成功的垫脚石，经受住困难的考验，才能够到达理想的彼岸。(能结合选文内容，言之有理即可，2分)
　　(三)阅读下面的文字，完成15-18小题。(10分)
　　15.答案示例：口腔&润滑油&(润滑口腔)，具有抗茁和凝血的作用;对污染食物中的致癌物具有)自毒作用，使人健康长寿(使人保持年轻)。(答出两点即可，2分)
　　16.答案示例：作比较(1分)。将口腔内伤口与其他地方伤口的愈合时间进行比较，突出了唾液具有抗菌和凝血的作用(2分)。
　　17.答案示例：不能(1分)。&几乎&指大部分，表明具有较强致癌作用的毒性物质大部分消失，并不是全部消失，如果去掉&几乎&就成了全部消失，与事实不符，&几乎&体现了说明文语言的准确性，随意不能删去(2分)。
　　18.答案示例：含羞草受到触摸就会闭合;痒痒树受到触摸时，树枝会摇摆;猪囊草会捕捉小昆虫;变色龙会根据环境的变化而变色等。(写出两点即可，2分)
　　(四)阅读下面的文字，完成19-23题。(13分)
　　19.①答案示例：&尴尬&写出了父亲付不出米粉钱时难为情、不知所措的情态。(1分)
　　②答案示例：&使劲&写出了杨店主因感动而用力握住父亲的手的动作。(1分)
　　20.答案示例： 父亲的信守承诺和杨店主的真诚善良深深地感动了我，让我感到无比温暖;点题(言之有理即可，2分)
　　21.答案示例：杨店主被父亲的真诚所打动;杨店主要为父亲了却这桩心愿;他想通过为父亲再做一次米粉来表达他的情意;表现了杨店主的善解人意。(答出三点，意思相近即可，3分)
　　22.答案示例：父亲是个信守承诺、执着坚毅的人。十五年前，他在桂林因钱包丢失，未能付给杨店主一碗米粉钱，承诺以后一定要付给他。事隔多年，&那碗米粉在父亲的心头挥之不去&，所以他专 程来到桂林，千方百计找到杨店主，归还了米粉钱，兑现了他当初的承诺。(答出父亲的性 格特点1分，结合文章分析2分)
　　23.答案示例：选文以&一碗米粉&为线索(1分)。通过&我&的所见所闻来叙写故事;情节跌宕起伏;开头设置悬念，吸引读者，为下文埋下伏笔;中间使用插叙手法，插入对往事的回忆，释疑;结尾点明中心，呼应题目(答出两点即可，2分)。
　　四、写作(40分)
　　附：作文评判标准：
　　一类卷(36-40分)符合题意，立意深刻、新颖，思想健康，中心突出，内容丰富，结构合理，语言准确，有文采，标点正确，600字以上。
　　二类卷(30-35分)符合题意，立意正确，思想健康，中心明确，内容较充实，结构完整，语言基本准确，标点正确，600字左右。
　　三类卷(24-29分)基本符合题意，中心基本明确，思想健康，内容较充实，结构较完整，语言基本通顺，标点错误不多，不足600字，但字数相差不大。
　　四类卷(0-23分)不符合题意，文理不通，结构不完整，层次混乱，错别字和标点错误多，字数相差大。
　　错别字两个扣一分(不重复计数)。
　　符合以下情况之一者，可酌情加1-5分，至满分止。
　　(1)构思新颖，有创意。
　　(2)体现出较为深厚的文化底蕴。
　　(3)语言优美，富有表现力。
　　(4)书写工整、美观。
猜你喜欢：
[云南中考语文试卷及答案(2)]相关的文章
【中考备考】图文推荐
下一篇：没有了SS的喜欢 | LOFTER（乐乎） - 让兴趣，更有趣
LOFTER for ipad —— 让兴趣，更有趣
>" data-citeRootBlogId="0"
class="m-mlist">
&nbsp&nbsp被喜欢
&nbsp&nbsp被喜欢
{list posts as post}
{if post.type==1 || post.type == 5}
{if !!post.title}${post.title|escape}{/if}
{if !!post.digest}${post.digest}{/if}
{if post.type==2}
{if post.type == 3}
{if !!post.image}
{if post.type == 4}
{if !!post.image}
{if !!photo.labels && photo.labels.length>0}
{var wrapwidth = photo.ow < 500?photo.ow:500}
{list photo.labels as labs}
{var lbtxtwidth = Math.floor(wrapwidth*(labs.ort==1?labs.x:(100-labs.x))/100)-62}
{if lbtxtwidth>12}
{if !!labs.icon}
{list photos as photo}
{if photo_index==0}{break}{/if}
品牌${make||'-'}
型号${model||'-'}
焦距${focalLength||'-'}
光圈${apertureValue||'-'}
快门速度${exposureTime||'-'}
ISO${isoSpeedRatings||'-'}
曝光补偿${exposureBiasValue||'-'}
镜头${lens||'-'}
{if data.msgRank == 1}{/if}
{if data.askSetting == 1}{/if}
{if defined('posts')&&posts.length>0}
{list posts as post}
{if post_index < 3}
{if post.type == 1 || post.type == 5}
{if !!post.title}${post.title|escape}{/if}
{if !!post.digest}${post.digest}{/if}
{if post.type == 2}
{if post.type == 3}
{if post.type == 4}
{if post.type == 6}
{if drlist.length>0}
更多相似达人：
{list drlist as dr}{if drlist.length === 3 && dr_index === 0}、{/if}{if drlist.length === 3 && dr_index === 1}、{/if}{if drlist.length === 2 && dr_index === 0}、{/if}{/list}
暂无相似达人，
{if defined('posts')&&posts.length>0}
{list posts as post}
{if post.type == 2}
{if post.type == 3}
{if post.type == 4}
{if post.type == 6}
this.p={ dwrMethod:'queryLikePosts',fpost:'1cdeb6c9_',userId:,blogListLength:20};中国状元职场状况调查-2014高端轿车维修服务市场状况调查
中国状元职场状况调查-2014高端轿车维修服务市场状况调查
一 : 2014高端轿车维修服务市场状况调查2014高端轿车维修服务市场状况调查关 键 词：市场调查项目名称：保定市高端轿车维修服务市场状况调查调查地点：保定市区项目概述:受客户委托，保定市指南针市场调查传播咨询有限公司于2014年1月，对保定市高端轿车维修服务市场状况进行了市场调查。［)本次调查采取预约和拦截访谈形式，对部分奔驰、宝马、奥迪高端轿车车主进行了问卷访谈，收回有效问卷148份。同时采取神秘客户方式，对保定市区的奔驰、宝马、奥迪4S店以及大正人、五洲、速霸、云阳、车之友等高端汽车维修店进行了实地考察，采集了维修服务相关信息。在周密的市场调查基础上，指南针公司对获取的信息资料进行了详尽分析，向客户提交了《保定市高端汽车维修服务市场状况调查报告》。调查报告集中反映了两方面的信息：一是高端车主对车辆维修保养需求偏好及消费行为分析。包括对维修保养渠道选择状况分析，选择维修保养店最关注的因素分析，对4S店和高端汽车专修店技术水平、服务项目、服务态度、收费状况评价，对4S店和高端汽车专修店相比印象评价分析，对维修保养之外其他服务项目需求，对高端汽车维修行业的建议等信息；二是保定高端汽车维修保养行业竞争对手优劣势对比分析。包括企业规模状况分析，企业定位及知名度分析，营销策略对比分析，服务项目及价格对比分析，品牌推广策略对比分析，客户服务策略对比分析等。调查报告为客户了解高端车主对车辆维修保养需求偏好及消费行为，掌握竞争对手现状，研究制定企业发展战略规划提供了详实的市场信息及决策依据。二 : 中国玩具市场状况中国玩具市场状况中国市场网 2002年一、市场概况1. 中国14岁以下的少年儿童及婴幼儿人口接近3亿多人，占全国人口的25%。(]其中城市儿童有8,000万人，构成了一个庞大的玩具消费群体。近年父母已普遍认同玩具能启发儿童智力的观念，加上现代家庭绝大多数都只有一个孩子，父母均乐意花费在孩子身上。2. 虽然官方统计2001年内地玩具市场销售额仅为120亿元（人民币，下同），但业内人士估计实际市场需求应达500亿元。业内人士普遍看好中国玩具市场，预测今后几年中国玩具市场将以每年40%的速度增长，到2010中国玩具市场消费额有望超过1,000亿元。3. 内地城市家长对孩子进行智力开发极为重视。集知识趣味、动手动脑于一体的玩具迎合了城市家长们望子成龙的心理。而农村消费物件仍然以传统的玩具类型为主。玩具的安全与卫生也是消费者考虑的重要因素。不过据调查，在购买学习工具及玩具时，59%是由孩子作主，至于娱乐方面，由孩子作决定的比例亦超过50%。4. 中国社会调查事务所（SSIC）调整显示，娱乐性玩具最受消费者欢迎，其次是教育性玩具。消费者选择玩具的比例5. 瞭解，目前各大中城市里里的消费者普遍可接受的玩具价格大致在100元以下。然而，在不少大城市乃至一些中型城市里，高达1,000元以上甚至1万元左右的新颖、高檔玩具，同样有其市场。6. 近年内地儿童玩具销售出现了以下几个特点：? 模型玩具。电动模型玩具同样地吸引小孩子及成人，如坦克车、装有警笛的小汽车等等。虽然这些玩具的价格并不便宜，尤其是电动玩具，一般约在70-80元左右，有些甚至高达700-800元，但销路却不错。? 遥控玩具。具有高科技外表的玩具如发声、发光的电子玩具、遥控玩具和能够说话或做一系列动作的互动玩具等等都很畅销。目前市场上出售的各类遥控玩具接近百种，主要是车、船、飞机等。遥控车约130-500元一辆，遥控船约150-400元，而遥控飞机则在3,400元-16,000元之间不等。? 塑胶玩具。塑胶已经取代金属、木和陶瓷，成为主要的玩具制造材料，原因是塑胶成本低、处理容易、较为安全和轻便。? 儿童玩具由季节性转向四季畅销。以往，父母只是在过年过节才购买玩具给孩子，随着人们消费观念的改变，儿童玩具成为一年四季都受欢迎的商品。7. 除儿童玩具外，内地成人玩具市场亦大有可为。据中国社会调查事务所最近的一项调查表明，64%的消费者表示如有条件，可以考虑购买适合自己的玩具，其中33%的成人认为自己喜欢并愿意购买玩具。有资料表明，目前中国有6,000家玩具制造商，其中99%生产儿童玩具，而据中国玩具协会的估计，中国的成人玩具市场仅青年需求一年就达500亿元人民币左右。第 1 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况8. 据调查，除了传统的军棋、象棋、围棋、跳棋、风筝外，成年男士比较喜爱电脑智力型玩具；而成年女士则喜欢高檔精美的装饰性玩具，材质包括木、泥、瓷、绒、布等种类，如布娃娃、毛绒娃娃、木制玩具和小动物和长毛狗等等；中年人则会选购消遣性、轻度运动型玩具；而老年人则较喜欢各种观赏型玩具、小动物玩具、娃娃玩具等。（）9. 以前，消费者会选购一些传统的玩具如电动型、拼装型或中、低檔次的毛绒、布制类玩具。现在，他们对玩具的需求有所改变。据中国社会调查事务所调查，城市消费者中34%消费者会选购电子型玩具，46%会选择智慧型玩具，而20%则喜爱高檔的毛绒、布制装饰类玩具。而农村消费者仍以传统的玩具类型为主，48%的农村消费者愿意购买电动型玩具，28%愿意购买拼装型玩具，24%愿意购买中、低檔次的毛绒、布制类玩具。 10. 中国玩具协会最新的调查显示，在中国城乡居民的消费支出中玩具消费平均约占年消费的5%，而随着玩具向高檔化、智慧化和系列化发展，其比例将呈加快提升的态势。月内地主要玩具产品进口摘要第 2 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况资料来源：WorldTradeAtlas二、竞争情况1. 目前内地有各类玩具生产企业6,000多家，而单在广东省便有玩具企业4,500家，2001年生产值达385亿元人民币，占内地总生产值的80%以上。［］内地最重要的玩具生产和出口基地是「五省一市」：广东、江苏、上海、山东、浙江和福建。其中，广东、福建以电动和塑胶玩具为主；江苏、上海以毛绒玩具为主；浙江以木制玩具为主。2. 现时，国际玩具市场上每年生产玩具多达15万种，其中新产品为5,000至6,000种，而内地企业所生产的玩具品种仅为3万多种，而且产品多属于传统的玩具，只须运用简单的技术和手艺，缺乏较高的附加值，也没有比较先进的性能。因此，来自内地玩具制造商的竞争，主要是集中在中低檔产品方面。然而，内地部份玩具企业，特别是三资企业，近年亦开始创立自己的品牌，提高产品檔次。如广东奥迪玩具生产的「四驱车迷」系列及广东东莞生产的智高（CHICCO）玩具以及上海、福州等地生产的遥控车、仿真车、仿真摩托车及仿真飞机，均深受消费者青睐。其他国产玩具品牌包括嘉菲牌毛绒玩具、威龙拼图、百利威玩具模型和可高建造玩具等等。3. 现在外商普遍采取合资经营的方式，把国外的设计和原料运到中国进行加工，再投放内地市场，对中国传统玩具生产企业的冲击正逐渐显现。目前从中国玩具市场的种类比例中可以发现，这种以合资形式生产的玩具，与纯粹的「洋货」几乎没有区别。一经面市，销路即被看好。2000年初，深圳一家合资的玩具企业，以「情侣娃」系列产品开拓北京市场，一炮打红，甚至出现脱销。这个产品做工精细，人物表现栩栩如生，有喜、有忧，颇得不同年龄段人士的欢迎。4. 据调查，目前世界着名的玩具企业都在内地设有分厂或与内地厂家合作生产玩具。像生产「电子宠物」的日本万代公司，历史悠久的玩具芭比娃娃，都在内地设有多家分厂。第 3 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况其他在内地流行的外国品牌则包括米奇老鼠和乐高等等。[）第 4 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况三、销售渠道1． 内地的玩具零售渠道主要有百货商场、货仓式商场、专门店、个体零售，以及新兴的儿童用品专卖店。(]其中百货商场和货仓式商场是消费者购买玩具的主要地点。生产商一般通过产品代理商向零售商供货，或透过玩具批发市场批货。2． 中国第一家在线玩具商店--佳信网玩具超市（toy.shopop.net）已在2000年10月深圳「高交会」期间隆重推出，现场注册人数即超过1,000人。据悉，IT界人士和中国的普通市民对网上玩具超市表现了浓厚的兴趣，现在在网上销售玩具的电子商务站点已经有了近十家。3． 内地大部份玩具专业/批发市场都以销售中低价玩具为主，但部份近年亦已升格，例如广州一德路玩具批发市场，近年便吸引了不少玩具品牌在那里设立展销厅。目前内地主要的玩具专业市场如下表：第 5 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况4．002-2003年内地即将举行的玩具展览会如下：第 6 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况四、进口及贸易法规1. 玩具根据制作材料和功能的不同，有不同的强制性国家标准，如机动玩具涉及的标准是GB8973，而毛绒布制玩具是GB6675、GB9832等，童车等塑胶玩具则是GB14746和GB5296.5等。(）另外，政府还制定了玩具使用说明标准，其中对标准和警示作了强制性规定。2. 内地对玩具还有第三方安全认证，即CCTP（ConformityCertificationofToyProducts）。该认证证书由中国玩具产品认证委员会颁发。目前内地已有40多家玩具生产企业的近100种产品通过了玩具安全认证。3. 2002年内地玩具的关税是10.5%，根据中国加入WTO后的关税减让进程，玩具关税将在2003年降至7%，2004年是3.5%，最后在2005年取消所有玩具关税。4. 2002年中国国家质量技术监督局组织了对童车、玩具产品的质量监督抽查，抽查的结果令人担忧，童车、玩具的合格率为55.6%。这次抽查的玩具产品包括毛绒制品玩具、塑胶玩具、机动玩具等。本次共抽查了北京、天津、上海、浙江、广东、河南、江苏等7个省、直辖市46家企业的81种产品，结果合格的只有45种，不仅抽样合格率低，而且基本上是安全项目不合格。在玩具产品中，毛绒制玩具抽样合格率为63.6%，机动玩具抽样合格率为58.6%。与此同时，2002年内地许多省的质量技术监督部门也相应地对各地的玩具质量进行了抽检，抽检结果同样问题多多，令人不安。广东省的广州、韶关、汕头等８个地区市场销售的儿童玩具合格率仅为18.25%；山西省对毛绒制品、电动、硬塑胶之类玩具产品进行了抽查，合格率为36.7%；山东省抽查毛绒玩具和硬塑胶类玩具29批，产品合格率仅为3.4%，「玩具安全性能」项目合格率为37.9%。第 7 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况附件：全球玩具公会相关网站台湾区玩具工业同业公会TAIWAN TOY MANUFACTURES ASSOCIATION .twICTI国际玩具工业协会 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF TOY INDUSTRIES,(ICTI) www.toy-icti.org香港玩具公会E-MAIL：fhki@fhki.org.hk日本玩具协会 THE JAPAN TOY ASSOCIATIONwww.toynes.or.jpE-MAIL：toys@fit.co.jp泰国玩具公会 THAI TOY INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION,(TTIA)www.ttia.or.thE-MAIL ：info@ttia.or.th美国玩具公会 TOY MANUFACTURERS OF AMERICA,INC.(TMA)TOYSOURCEwww.E-MAIL：toyfairs@巴西玩具公会E-MAIL：.br西班牙玩具公会 SPANISH ASSOCIATION OF TOY MANUFACTURERSwww.aefj.es英国玩具零售商公会 BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF TOY RETAILERS,(BATR) www.batr.co.uk英国玩具公会 BRITISH TOY & HOBBY ASSOCIATIONwww.btha.co.ukE-MAIL：admin@btha.co.uk澳洲玩具公会 AUSTRALIAN TOY ASSOCIATION LIMITED50-52 HOWARD STREET, NORTH MELBOURNE 3051POSTAL ADDRESS:P O BOX 74, NORTH MELBOURNE 3051TEL:+61 3
FAX:+61 3 E-MAIL：.au.au第 8 页 共 9 页中国玩具 中国玩具市场状况意大利玩具公会www.federlegno.itSEGA公司 SEGA ENTERPRISES LTD. www.sega.co.jp任天堂 NINTENDOwww.nintendo.co.jpBANDAI 公司www.bandai.co.jpHASBRO(孩之宝)第 9 页 共 9 页三 : 中国状元职场状况调查《中国状元职场状况调查》披露 1977 年到 2006 年的 中国状元职场状况调查》 30 年全国各省状元全军覆没 发布日期: 2009发布日期: 刚刚看到的一个新闻： 刚刚看到的一个新闻：其中这句话震动我心： 其中这句话震动我心：他透露，首份《中国状元职场状况调查》 他透露，首份《中国状元职场状况调查》无奈披 年全国各省状元全军覆没， 露 1977 年到 2006 年的 30 年全国各省状元全军覆没， 没有发现一个在从政、经商、 没有发现一个在从政、经商、做学问等方面的杰出人 才。我不知道该怎么说了， 我不知道该怎么说了，这个跨三十年统计样本量 和时间足够了， 和时间足够了，说明了我们选择人才的尺度上面有了 很严重的偏差， 很严重的偏差，或者是中小学教育出问题或者就是我 们大学教育出现严重问题！ 们大学教育出现严重问题！一个省冠军基本上来说就是一个考试绝顶高手 一个省冠军基本上来说就是一个考试绝顶高手 了，因为每个省同一批几百万（几十万）个同年或者 因为每个省同一批几百万（几十万） 临近年份出生的孩子，经历我们严格的幼儿园-小学临近年份出生的孩子，经历我们严格的幼儿园-小学初中-高中， 层层考试选出来的都是绝对符合我们现在 初中-高中， 教育体制要求的高级精英， 教育体制要求的高级精英，完全在试卷上是个符合的 明星了！ 明星了！再经历我们当时最好的高校栽培， 再经历我们当时最好的高校栽培，这些精英完全 是我们社会需要的顶尖的高级复合型人才， 是我们社会需要的顶尖的高级复合型人才，技能上面 说在我们名牌大学进修过的高考尖子， 说在我们名牌大学进修过的高考尖子，成绩基本上也 是顶尖的好苗子， 是顶尖的好苗子，这样的人才起码账面上面是可塑性 极强，极其适应考试和学习， 极强，极其适应考试和学习，同时又是名牌大学的骄 子，在毕业后最强的好工作岗真的不掉线 在毕业后最强的好工作岗真的不掉线 吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？位基本也是这些人的囊中物了， 位基本也是这些人的囊中物了，所以就表面看高 是这些人的囊中物了 考状元的路已经展开， 考状元的路已经展开，剩下的就是摘果子了可是不知为什么专家有这种痛心的呼吁， 可是不知为什么专家有这种痛心的呼吁，我们真 该好好看看这份调查， 该好好看看这份调查，什么原因使得高考状元变成了 默默无闻的平常人了！ ！ 默默无闻的平常人了！！高考状元某种意义上面就是我们自己标准选拔的 精英，我们社会的顶尖才子， 精英，我们社会的顶尖才子，他们的事业上的沉默是 不是因为我们过去的某些原因还是有更深层的含义， 不是因为我们过去的某些原因还是有更深层的含义， 欢迎大家讨论！ 欢迎大家讨论！就业怪现象: 人才给蠢才打工” 就业怪现象:“人才给蠢才打工”田文江认为，人才种类多种多样， 田文江认为，人才种类多种多样，具体标准也是 多种多样的。但有个通用标准——情商与智商。 多种多样的。但有个通用标准——情商与智商。一流 ——情商与智商 人才情商高、智商高:二流人才情商高、智商不高； 人才情商高、智商高:二流人才情商高、智商不高；三 流人才情商不高、智商高；四流人才情商不高、 流人才情商不高、智商高；四流人才情商不高、智商 才情商不高 不高。田文江介绍，情商与智商培养的时效性不同: 不高。田文江介绍，情商与智商培养的时效性不同: 情商教育的时效性特别强，一般在初中以下完成； 情商教育的时效性特别强，一般在初中以下完成；而 智商培养则不同稍晚一点没有关系。他打比方说， 智商培养则不同稍晚一点没有关系。他打比方说，把 那些智商高情商差的学生比作是扁平状， 那些智商高情商差的学生比作是扁平状，而高考就是 长方形的，符合形状的扁平状学生被筛子选进了， 长方形的，符合形状的扁平状学生被筛子选进了，相 反那些情商高智商不高的圆球型人才就被淘汰了， 反那些情商高智商不高的圆球型人才就被淘汰了，但 85%到 90%老板是没上过大学的 所以才出现“ 老板是没上过大学的， 目前 85%到 90%老板是没上过大学的，所以才出现“人 才给蠢才打工”的就业怪现象，这就说明高考定位有 蠢才打工”的就业怪现象，问题，错在这是选拔应试人才的标准。 问题，错在这是选拔应试人才的标准。田文江反对把 上名牌大学、考上状元作为子女教育的终极目标， 上名牌大学、考上状元作为子女教育的终极目标，人 生是个万米长跑，讲究终身学习， 生是个万米长跑，讲究终身学习，有些家长在应试教 个万米长跑 育下拿鞭子拼命抽着孩子用 100 米冲刺速度跑 1 万 米也真的不 米，过早把孩子潜力用尽了，后来的 9900 米也真的不 过早把孩子潜力用尽了， 掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？就跑不动了。他透露，首份《 就跑不动了。他透露，首份《中国状元职场状况 调查》 无奈披露 1977 年到 2006 年的 30 年全国各省状 调查》 元全军覆没，没有发现一个在从政、经商、 元全军覆没，没有发现一个在从政、经商、做学问等 方面的杰出人才。 方面的杰出人才。培养人才: 培养人才:要应用反木桶理论高考分数面前人人平等” 是真的公平吗？ “ 高考分数面前人人平等” 是真的公平吗？田文 江表示，这只是表面和形式上的公平， 江表示，这只是表面和形式上的公平，而实质上并不 公平， 公平，因为这是以一种人才标准来衡量所有类型的人 才，就像歌唱方面的人才嗓子再好在高考文化考试能 就像歌唱方面的人才嗓子再好在高考文化考试能有突破吗？只有同一种类型人才，去比“分数” 有突破吗？只有同一种类型人才，去比“分数”那才 叫真公平。田文江指出，乐感好的人，学英语轻松； 叫真公平。田文江指出，乐感好的人，学英语轻松； 有数学天赋的人很多怕英语，为什么？ 有数学天赋的人很多怕英语，为什么？因为人的大脑 潜质有差异，思维方式不一样，人的天赋不同， 潜质有差异，思维方式不一样，人的天赋不同，成才 的类型就不同。 什么样的人是人才？ “ 的类型就不同。 什么样的人是人才？人才的标准是什 么？90%以上的答案:科学家、大教授；北大、清华的 90%以上的答案:科学家、大教授；北大、 以上的答案 毕业生！这对吗？ 田文江说， 毕业生！这对吗？”田文江说，家长和教育界在教育 实践中有严重的偏向，子女教育是在用体育上“ 实践中有严重的偏向，子女教育是在用体育上“训练 专业运动员” 的方式搞“全民健身运动” “ ——即用 训 “ 专业运动员” 的方式搞 全民健身运动” ——即用“ 即用 练科学家”的方式培养“普通劳动者” ， 练科学家”的方式培养“普通劳动者” 这样实践的后 果是全体受教育者均受到 运动伤害” 田文江称， 果是全体受教育者均受到 “运动伤害” 田文江称， 。 家长要树立多元的人才观。人人都可以培养成才， 家长要树立多元的人才观。人人都可以培养成才，但 不是同一类人才； 蕃茄树上长不出苹果” “ ， 不是同一类人才； 蕃茄树上长不出苹果” 每个孩子 都有自己的特长，世界是由偏才创造的， 都有自己的特长，世界是由偏才创造的，所以在人才 培养上要应用反木桶理论， 培养上要应用反木桶理论，太多家长只知道在短板上 强行钻，却不知道在长板上多下功夫， 强行钻，却不知道在长板上多下功夫，将孩子的特长 挖出、因才施教。田文江指出， 挖出、因才施教。田文江指出，少部分家长不承担责 任，把孩子教育的希望完全寄托于学校，自己当甩手 把孩子教育的希望完全寄托于学校， 掌柜，这也是误区，家庭——学校——社会三者在子 掌柜，这也是误区，家庭——学校——社会三者在子 ——学校—— 女成长的不同时间所起作用的大小是不一样的， 女成长的不同时间所起作用的大小是不一样的，一个 孩子教育“只能是零售，不能批发” ！ 孩子教育“只能是零售，不能批发”真的不掉线吗？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？SAT 数学必备词汇1，add，plus 加 add，subtract 减difference 差multiply,times 乘product 积divide 除divisible 可被整除的dividedevenly 被整除dividend 被除数因子， divisor 因子，除数quotient 商remainder 余数factorial 阶乘power 乘方radicalsign,rootsign 根号roundto 四舍五入tothenearest 四舍五入2.有关集合 2.有关集合union 并集proper subset 真子集solution set 解集3.?有关代数式、 3.?有关代数式、方程和不等式algebraic term 代数项like terms,similar terms 同类项numerical coefficient 数字系数literal coefficient 字母系数inequality 不等式triangle inequality 三角不等式range 值域original equation 原方程equivalent equation 同解方程 等价方程线性方程(e.g.5 linear equation 线性方程(e.g.5 ? x ?+6=22)4.? 4.?有关分数和小数真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？proper fraction 真分数improper fraction 假分数mixed number 带分数fraction， vulgar fraction，mon fraction 普通分数simple fraction 简分数plex fraction 繁分数numerator 分子denominator 分母denominator(最小 最小) (least)mon denominator(最小)公分母quarter 四分之一decimal fraction 纯小数infinite decimal 无穷小数recurring decimal 循环小数tenthsunit 十分位5.基本数学概念 5.基本数学概念arithmetic mean 算术平均值weighted average 加权平均值geometric mean 几何平均数指数， exponent 指数，幂乘幂的底数, base 乘幂的底数,底边立方数， cube 立方数，立方体square root 平方根cube root 立方根mon logarithm 常用对数digit 数字constant 常数variable 变量inversefunction 反函数plementary function 余函数一次的， linear 一次的，线性的factorization 因式分解绝对值，e.g.｜ 32｜ absolute value 绝对值，e.g.｜-32｜=32round off 四舍五入6.? 6.?有关数论natural number 自然数positive number 正数negative number 负数odd integer,odd number 奇数真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ ？？、？？？？？even integer,even number 偶数integer,whole number 整数positive whole number 正整数negative whole number 负整数consecutive number 连续整数实数, rea lnumber,rational number 实数,有理数irrational(number)无理数 irrational(number)无理数inverse 倒数posite number 合数 e.g.4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15…… e.g.4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15……e.g.2,3,5,7,11,13,15…… prime number 质数 e.g.2,3,5,7,11,13,15……reciprocal 倒数mon divisor 公约数multiple 倍数multiple(最小 最小) (least)mon multiple(最小)公倍数(prime)factor(质 (prime)factor(质)因子mon factor 公因子ordinaryscale,decimalscale 十进制nonnegative 非负的tens 十位units 个位mode 众数median 中数mon ratio 公比7.? 7.?数列progression(sequence) uence)等差数列 arithmetic progression(sequence)等差数列progression(sequence)等比数列 geometric progression(sequence)等比数列8.? 8.?其它approximate 近似(anti)clockwise(逆 (anti)clockwise(逆)顺时针方向cardinal 基数ordinal 序数directproportion 正比distinct 不同的估计， estimation 估计，近似parentheses 括号proportion 比例permutation 排列bination 组合真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？table 表格trigonometric function 三角函数单位, unit 单位,位几何部分1.所有的角 1.所有的角alternate angle 内错角corresponding angle 同位角vertical angle 对顶角central angle 圆心角interior angle 内角exterior angle 外角supplement aryangles 补角plement aryangle 余角adjacent angle 邻角acute angle 锐角obtuse angle 钝角right angle 直角angle round angle 周角straight angle 平角included angle 夹角2.? 2.?所有的三角形equilateral triangle 等边三角形scalene triangle 不等边三角形isosceles triangle 等腰三角形right triangle 直角三角形oblique 斜三角形inscribed triangle 内接三角形3.?有关收敛的平面图形， 3.?有关收敛的平面图形，除三角形外semicircle 半圆concentric circles 同心圆quadrilateral 四边形pentagon 五边形hexagon 六边形heptagon 七边形octagon 八边形nonagon 九边形decagon 十边形真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？polygon 多边形parallelogram 平行四边形equilateral 等边形plane 平面正方形， square 正方形，平方rectangle 长方形regular polygon 正多边形rhombus 菱形trapezoid 梯形4.? 4.?其它平面图形arc 弧line,straight line 直线line line segment 线段parallel lines 平行线segment of a circle 弧形5.? 5.?有关立体图形立方体， cube 立方体，立方数rectangular solid 长方体regular solid/regular polyhedron 正多面体circular cylinder 圆柱体cone 圆锥sphere 球体solid 立体的6.? 6.?有关图形上的附属物altitude 高depth 深度side 边长circumference,perimeter 周长radian radian 弧度surface area 表面积volume 体积arm 直角三角形的股cros ssection 横截面center of acircle 圆心chord 弦radius 半径真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？angle bisector 角平分线diagonal 对角线diameter 直径edge 棱face of a solid 立体的面hypotenuse 斜边included side 夹边leg 三角形的直角边medianofatriangle 三角形的中线底边， 次方， 就是底数) base 底边，底数(e.g.2 的 5 次方，2 就是底数)opposite 直角三角形中的对边midpoint 中点endpoint 端点vertex(复数形式 vertices)顶点 vertex(复数形式 vertices)顶点tangent 切线的transversal 截线intercept 截距7.? 7.?有关坐标coordinate system 坐标系rectangular coordinate 直角坐标系origin 原点abscissa 横坐标ordinate 纵坐标numberline 数轴quadrant 象限slope 斜率plane plex plane 复平面8.? 8.?其它plane geometry 平面几何trigonometry 三角学bisect 平分circumscribe 外切inscribe 内切intersect 相交perpendicular 垂直pythagorean theorem 勾股定理congruent 全等的multilateral 多边的真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？其它1.? 1.?单位类cent 美分penny 一美分硬币nickel5 美分硬币dime 一角硬币dozen 打(12 个)score score 廿(20 个)Centigrade 摄氏Fahrenheit 华氏quart 夸脱加仑(1gallon=4quart) gallon 加仑(1gallon=4quart)yard 码meter 米micron 微米inch 英寸foot 英尺角度的度量单位， minute 分(角度的度量单位，60 分=1 度)squaremeasure 平方单位制cubicmeter 立方米品脱(干量或液量的单位) pint 品脱(干量或液量的单位)真的不掉线吗？？、 ？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、（ 免 支持” ） 胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享 全； “支持”版：《语言学教程》重难点学习提示 语言学教程》 第一章 语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多 言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、 产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（ 产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒 ）；语言的功能 暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对 指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说， 方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造 ）；语言的起源 说，进化说）等。 进化说） 第二章 语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、 语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简 洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共 客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、 ）；语言学的基本概念 时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、 时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言 潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、 潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、 ）；普通语言学的分支 语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（ 语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语 ）；；语言学的应用 言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、 言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、 人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学） 人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学） 语言学 等。 第三章 语音学发音器官的英文名称； 发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方 法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学 语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学； 语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。 第四章 音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布； 音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音 的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节； 的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音 （词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。 词重音、句子重音、音高和语调） 第五章 词法学词法的定义； 曲折词与派生词； 构词法 合成与派生） （合成与派生） ； 词法的定义； 曲折词与派生词； 词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根， 词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干） 词缀和词干）等。 第六章 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词； 词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词 与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。 与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。 第七章 句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分； 句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析 法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数， 并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（ 格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 ）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。 一致 第八章 语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、 语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功 能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、 语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、 ）；里奇的语义分类 反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 反义、下义）；句子语义关系。 ）；句子语义关系 第九章 语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、 语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变 化、语义变化）； 语义变化）； 第十章 语言、 语言、思维与文化真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说； 语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思 维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。 第十一章 语用学 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义； 语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）； 言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）； 合作原则。 合作原则。1.1. What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols system, used for human munication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection book” between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the that fact that different languages have different book” livre” “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in books” check” French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by the nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speechis the primary medium for all human languages, new” developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small learn children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, human” rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language? features” “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness? arbitrariness” By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person orLanguage group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is soundnot absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like crash” roar” “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are bang” motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some word pounds (words pounded to be one word ) are not Type” entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while write” “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent type-writer” or motivated than the words that make it. So we 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ can 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？arbitrariness” say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality? duality” Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. level, At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of binations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lowerlevel, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which bine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal munication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.1.5.What is productivity? Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large one’ number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.redNo one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with gibbon” an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right artistic register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the rulelanguage, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement? “Displacement”, as one of the design features Displacement” of the human language, refers to the fact that one can can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking forsomething or at someone that exists now and there. couldn’ bowIt couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome bee’ lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, displacement” noheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission? biologically This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky device” called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a geic basis, but the 真的不掉线 吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a geic one like the dog’ dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The by Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out wolf’ tongue” to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when hewas saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability? can Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to happy.” make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the turnfirst speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social munication possible and acceptable.Some male birds, however, utter some calls which cannot?) females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kindsof fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is speaking” (are0 “speaking” and which listening. 1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific? specific? First of all, human language has six “design features” features” which animal munication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see .2Let’ Hocket’ I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that animals’ pares human language with some animals’ systems, Wang from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She Language” was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the Child” “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have? Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of munication, a tool 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, Macro-Functions” recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: interpersonal ideational, interpersonal and !.11textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394al.,pp10-13,pp394-396). 1. phatic function? 11What is thefunction” The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and ments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. you?” Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” thanks.” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken important. literally, but it is important. If you don&#39;t say don’ “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t Hello” Hi” answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12.What is the directive function?function” The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., finish.” “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts J.Searle’ can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s theory” “indrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271al.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would haveears!” blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function? function” Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the declarative use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or P.Grice’ false(falsehood). According to P.Grice’s Principle” “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et pp282al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the Quality” “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function? When language is used to obtain information, it function” serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the theory” may “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, atreader’s/listener’ least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function? function” The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like heavens!” God!” “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like sorry delay” “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ pas 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？s judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’ speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function? function” The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize,soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or en advertising to urge customers to purchase purch propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or That’ imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the performative function? things” This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the important utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more OK” than an average social individual may do for the The judge’ construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence,president’ the president’s war or independence declaration, J.Austin’ etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271ecal.,pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics? “Linguistics” is the scientific study of Linguistics” language. language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also how concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In general short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of munication in their societies or munities (see Hu Zhuanglin al.,pp20et al.,pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science? Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some structure, hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, 真的 不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the plicatedness. plicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there stone” should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means alinguist should pursue brevity in the analysis implies when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-ofmatter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.linguistics? 1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics? The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various ,phonology branches : phoics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies? The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a languageas it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing? No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Geically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language newscope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Samuel Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated linguistic unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore. 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? descriptive” A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules prescriptive”correct” for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were because largely prescriptive because many early grammars high” were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, inplete utterance, etc.) misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole? langue” F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a parole” speech munity and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific toactually th langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a natur langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, abstract according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The languelangue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between petence and performance? petence” According to N. Chomsky, “petence” is the ideal user’ language user’s knowledge of the rules of his performance” language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The enables former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes andspeaker’ ambiguities. A speaker’s petence is stable while his performance is often influenced by speaker’ psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance performance does not always match or equal his supposed petence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study petence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. Chomsky’ petence-performance Chomsky’s petence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. Saussure’ languede Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a munity, while petence is deemed as a property Sussure of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or s 真的不掉 线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic linguistic behaviour? potentialThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual behavior” linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could (linguistic have said (linguistic potential). 1.27.In what way do language, petence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts? Langue, petence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately Langue different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of
petence is a speaker’ property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the utterance speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. petence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of knowing” doing” possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions” actions”. They are similar in that they all refer underlying to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phoics? “Phoics” is the science which studies the Phoics” soundcharacteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu pp39Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may bestudied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phoics. (1)A the branch of phoics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they process. coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phoics, hearer’ the branch of phoic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. physical (3)Acoustic phoics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoicians, however, are interested in articulatory phoics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed? The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et organs al.,p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be con 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？sidered as consi the airinitiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation? It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get palate involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1 )bilabial p,b,m]; (2) labiodental f,v]; (3) dental ,]; (4) alveolar t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) (6) palatopalato-alveolar ,]; (7) palatal j]; (8) velar[k,g,]; (9) (10)glottal h].involve Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the softlabial-velar” palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.articulation? 1.31.What is the manner of articulation? articulation” The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following : (1) plosive p,b,t,d,k,g]; p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2) nasal m,n,]; (3) (4) (5) lateral l]; (6) fricative f,v,s,z]; (7) approximant w,j]; (8) affricate ].1.32.How do phoicians classify vowels? Phoicians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels, vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it e into being ? The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phoic Alphabet” Alphabet”, is a promise system making use ofsources, symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phoic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription? In handbook of phoics, Henry Sweet made a narrow” broad” distinction between “narrow” and “broad” Romic” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute Romic shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？ 真的不掉线吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phoics and phonology?(1)the “Phonology” is the study of sound Phonology”systemssystems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, plementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by phonologist. a phonologist. (2) Phoics, as discussed in I.28, is the branchof linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phoist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the to mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, accent” to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phoic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is andone’ what is not a sound in one’s language.phone? 1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone? phone” A “phone” is a phoic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for different[p]’ one thing, and three different[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics” diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish phoneme” meaning. A “phoneme” is it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. phoneme The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., allophones” phones) but do not make one word so phoicallydifferent as to create a new word or a new meaning different[p]’ thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phoic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it ruleis rule- these rules are to be found out phonologist. by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs? When two different phoic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a pair” pill” bill “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, till” till” dill” “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, pill” kill” “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words till” together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in know English, which makes it relatively easy to knowwhat are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is 真的不掉线 吗？？、？？？？？？？？？？？？dealing with the sound system of an unknown pp65language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation? If two sounds occurring in the same environ namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pro